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rma wheel five aggregates impermanence suffering no self dependent origination middle way mettā emptiness morality karma rebirth saṃsāra cosmology buddhist texts buddhavacana early texts tripiṭaka mahayana sutras pāli canon sanskrit literature tibetan canon chinese canon post canon practices three jewels buddhist paths to liberation five precepts perfections meditation philosophical reasoning devotional practices merit making recollections mindfulness wisdom sublime abidings aids to enlightenment monasticism lay life buddhist liturgy buddhist chant pilgrimage vegetarianism nirvāṇa awakening four stages arhat pratyekabuddhayāna bodhisattva buddha traditions theravāda pāli mahāyāna hinayana chinese vajrayāna tibetan navayana newar buddhism by country bhutan brazil cambodia china india indonesia japan korea laos malaysia mongolia myanmar nepal new zealand russia singapore us sri lanka taiwan thailand tibet vietnam buddhism portal v t e the pāḷi canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the theravada buddhist tradition as preserved in the pāli language 1 it is the most complete extant early buddhist canon 2 3 it derives mainly from the tambapaṇṇiya school 4 according to buddhist tradition during the first buddhist council three months after the parinibbana of gautama buddha in rajgir ananda recited the sutta pitaka and upali recited the vinaya pitaka the arhats present accepted the recitations and henceforth the teachings were preserved orally by the sangha the tipitaka that was transmitted to sri lanka during the reign of king asoka was initially preserved orally and later written down on palm leaves during the fourth buddhist council in 29 bc approximately 454 years after the death of gautama buddha a 6 the claim that the texts were spoken by the buddha is meant in this non literal sense 7 the existence of the bhāṇaka tradition existing until later periods along with other sources shows that oral tradition continued to exist side by side with written scriptures for many centuries to come thus the so called writing down of the scriptures 8 was only the beginning of a new form of tradition and the innovation was likely opposed by the more conservative monks as with many other innovations it was only after some time that it was generally accepted therefore it was much later that the records of this event were transformed into an account of a council sangayana or sangiti which was held under the patronage of king vattagamani textual fragments of similar teachings have been found in the āgama s of other major buddhist schools in india they were however written down in various prakrits other than pali as well as sanskrit some of those were later translated into chinese earliest dating to the late 4th century ad the surviving sri lankan version is the most complete 9 but was extensively redacted about 1 000 years after buddha s death in the 5th or 6th century ce 10 the earliest textual fragments of canonical pali were found in the pyu city states in burma dating only to the mid 5th to mid 6th century ce 11 the pāli canon falls into three general categories called pitaka from pali piṭaka meaning basket referring to the receptacles in which the palm leaf manuscripts were kept 12 thus the canon is traditionally known as the tipiṭaka three baskets the three pitakas are as follows vinaya piṭaka discipline basket dealing with rules or discipline of the sangha 12 9 sutta piṭaka sutra sayings basket discourses and sermons of buddha some religious poetry the largest basket 12 abhidhamma piṭaka treatises that elaborate buddhist doctrines particularly about mind also called the systematic philosophy basket the vinaya pitaka and the sutta pitaka are remarkably similar to the works of the early buddhist schools often termed early buddhist texts the abhidhamma pitaka however is a strictly theravada collection and has little in common with the abhidhamma works recognized by other buddhist schools 13 the canon in the tradition edit in pre modern times the pali canon was disseminated through oral tradition and palm leaf manuscripts the leaves are kept together by thin sticks and the scripture is covered in cloth and kept in a box the canon is traditionally described by the theravada as the word of the buddha buddhavacana though this is not intended in a literal sense since it includes teachings by disciples 14 the traditional theravādin mahavihārin interpretation of the pali canon is given in a series of commentaries covering nearly the whole canon compiled by buddhaghosa fl 4th 5th century ad and later monks mainly on the basis of earlier materials now lost subcommentaries were written afterward commenting further on the canon and its commentaries the traditional theravādin interpretation is summarized in buddhaghosa s visuddhimagga 15 based on the sixth buddhist council pāli exegesis 1756 sri lankan palm leaf manuscript of aṭṭhakathā in pali and sinhalese theravāda buddhism pāli literature aṭṭhakathā vinayapiṭaka aṭṭhakathā samantapāsādikā suttapiṭaka aṭṭhakathā sumaṅgalavilāsinī papañcasūdanī sāratthappakāsinī manorathapūraṇī khuddakanikāya aṭṭhakathā abhidhammapiṭaka aṭṭhakathā aṭṭhasālinī sammohavinodanī pañcapakaraṇa ṭīkā vinayapiṭaka ṭīkā sāratthadīpanī dvemātikā vinayasaṅgaha vajirabuddhi vimativinodanī vinayālaṅkāra kaṅkhāvitaraṇīpurāṇa vinayavinicchaya pācityādiyojanā khuddasikkhā mūlasikkhā suttapiṭaka ṭīkā līnatthappakāsinī sāratthamañjūsā khuddakanikāya ṭīkā nettippakaraṇa ṭīkā nettivibhāvinī abhidhammapiṭaka ṭīkā dhammasaṅgaṇī mūlaṭīkā vibhaṅga mūlaṭīkā pañcapakaraṇa mūlaṭīkā dhammasaṅgaṇī anuṭīkā pañcapakaraṇa anuṭīkā abhidhammāvatāra nāmarūpapariccheda abhidhammatthasaṅgaha abhidhammatthavibhāvinīṭīkā abhidhammāvatāra purāṇaṭīkā abhidhammamātikā añña visuddhimagga saṅgāyanapucchavissajjanā leḍīsayāḍo gantha saṅgaha niruttidīpanī paramatthadīpanī anudīpanīpāṭha paṭṭhānuddesa dīpanīpāṭha buddhavandanā gantha saṅgaha namakkāraṭīkā mahāpaṇāmapāṭha lakkhaṇāto buddhathomanāgāthā sutavandanā kamalāñjalī jinālaṅkāra pajjamadhu buddhaguṇagāthāvalī vaṃsa gantha saṅgaha cūḷaganthavaṃsa mahāvaṃsa sāsanavaṃsa byākaraṇa gantha saṅgaha kaccāyanabyākaraṇaṃ moggallānabyākaraṇaṃ saddanītippakaraṇaṃ padarūpasiddhi moggallānapañcikā payogasiddhipāṭha vuttodayapāṭha abhidhānappadīpikāpāṭha abhidhānappadīpikāṭīkā subodhālaṅkārapāṭha subodhālaṅkāraṭīkā bālāvatāra gaṇṭhipadatthavinicchayasāra nīti gantha saṅgaha lokanīti suttantanīti sūrassatinīti mahārahanīti dhammanīti kavidappaṇanīti nītimañjarī naradakkhadīpanī caturārakkhadīpanī cāṇakyanīti pakiṇṇaka gantha saṅgaha rasavāhinī sīmavisodhanīpāṭha vesantaragīti sihaḷa gantha saṅgaha moggallānavuttivivaraṇapañcikā thūpavaṃsa dāṭhāvaṃsa dhātupāṭhavilāsiniyā dhātuvaṃsa hatthavanagallavihāravaṃsa jinacaritaya jinavaṃsadīpaṃ telakaṭāhagāthā milidaṭīkā padamañjarī padasādhanaṃ saddabindupakaraṇaṃ kaccāyanadhātumañjusā sāmantakūṭavaṇṇanā tipiṭaka yojanā pakaraṇavisesa v t e a spokesman for the buddha sasana council of burma states 16 that the canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvāna the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative matter but are faithful to its teachings and often give very illuminating illustrations although the canon has existed in written form for two millennia its earlier oral nature has not been forgotten in buddhist practice memorization and recitation remain common among frequently recited texts are the paritta even lay people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly this is considered a form of meditation at least if one understands the meaning monks are of course expected to know quite a bit more see dhammapada below for an example a burmese monk named vicittasara even learned the entire canon by heart for the sixth council again according to the usual theravada numbering 17 18 the relation of the scriptures to buddhism as it actually exists among ordinary monks and lay people is as with other major religious traditions problematic the evidence suggests that only parts of the canon ever enjoyed wide currency and that non canonical works were sometimes much more widely used the details varied from place to place 19 rupert gethin suggests that the whole of buddhist history may be regarded as a working out of the implications of the early scriptures 20 origins edit according to a late section of the pali canon the buddha taught the three pitakas 21 it is traditionally believed by theravadins that most of the pali canon originated from the buddha and his immediate disciples according to the scriptures a council was held shortly after the buddha s passing to collect and preserve his teachings the theravada tradition states that the canon was recited orally from the 5th century to the first century bc when it was written down 22 the memorization was reinforced by regular communal recitations the tradition holds that only a few later additions were made the theravādin pitakas were first written down in sri lanka in the alu viharaya temple no earlier than 29 17 bc 23 the geographic setting of identifiable texts within the canon generally corresponds to locations in the ganges region of northeastern india including the kingdoms of kosala kasi vajji and magadha 24 while theravada tradition has generally regarded pali as being synonymous with the language of the kingdom of magadhi as spoken by the buddha linguists have identified pali as being more closely related to other prakrit languages of western india and found substantial incompatibilities with the few preserved examples of magadhi and other north eastern prakrit languages 25 linguistic research suggests that the teachings of the buddha may have been recorded in an eastern indian language originally and transposed into the west indian precursor of pali sometime before the asokan era 24 much of the material in the canon is not specifically theravādin but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early non sectarian body of teachings according to peter harvey the canon contains material which is at odds with later theravādin orthodoxy he states that the theravādins then may have added texts to the canon for some time but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period 26 a variety of factors suggest that the early sri lankan buddhists regarded canonical literature as such and transmitted it conservatively 27 theravada tradition generally treats the canon as a whole as originating with the buddha and his immediate disciples with the exception of certain generally abhidhamma texts that explicitly refer to events long after his death scholars differ in their views regarding the origin of the pali canon but generally believe that the canon includes several strata of relatively early and late texts but with little consensus regarding the relative dating of different sections of the canon or which texts belong to which era 24 authorship edit authorship according to theravadins edit prayudh payutto argues that the pali canon represents the teachings of the buddha essentially unchanged apart from minor modifications he argues that it also incorporates teachings that precede the buddha and that the later teachings were memorized by the buddha s followers while he was still alive his thesis is based on study of the processes of the first great council and the methods for memorization used by the monks which started during the buddha s lifetime it s also based on the capability of a few monks to this day to memorize the entire canon 28 bhikkhu sujato and bhikkhu brahmali argue that it is likely that much of the pali canon dates back to the time period of the buddha they base this on many lines of evidence including the technology described in the canon apart from the obviously later texts which matches the technology of his day which was in rapid development that it doesn t include back written prophecies of the great buddhist ruler king ashoka which mahayana texts often do suggesting that it predates his time that in its descriptions of the political geography it presents india at the time of buddha which changed soon after his death that it has no mention of places in south india which would have been well known to indians not long after buddha s death and various other lines of evidence dating the material back to his time 7 authorship according to academic scholars edit the views of scholars concerning the authorship of the pali canon can be grouped into three categories citation needed attribution to the buddha himself and his early followers attribution to the period of pre sectarian buddhism agnosticism views concerning authorship of the buddha himself edit several scholars of early buddhism argue that the nucleus of the buddhist teachings in the pali canon may derive from gautama buddha himself but that part of it also was developed after the buddha by his early followers richard gombrich says that the main preachings of the buddha as in the vinaya and sutta pitaka are coherent and cogent and must be the work of a single person the buddha himself not a committee of followers after his death b 30 other scholars are more cautious and attribute part of the pali canon to the buddha s early followers peter harvey 31 states that much of the pali canon must derive from the buddha s teaching but also that parts of the pali canon clearly originated after the time of the buddha c a k warder stated that there is no evidence clarification needed to suggest that the shared teaching of the early schools was formulated by anyone else than the buddha and his immediate followers d j w de jong said it would be hypocritical to assert that we can say nothing about the teachings of earliest buddhism arguing that the basic ideas of buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him the buddha transmitted and developed by his disciples and finally codified in fixed formulas 33 alex wynne said that some texts in the pali canon may go back to the very beginning of buddhism which perhaps include the substance of the buddha s teaching and in some cases maybe even his words e he suggests the canon was composed soon after buddha s parinirvana but after a period of free improvisation and then the core teachings were preserved nearly verbatim by memory 34 hajime nakamura writes that while nothing can be definitively attributed to gautama as a historical figure some sayings or phrases must derive from him 35 views concerning authorship in the period of pre sectarian buddhism edit most scholars agree there was a rough body of sacred literature that an early community maintained and transmitted 36 f much of the pali canon is found also in the scriptures of other early schools of buddhism parts of whose versions are preserved mainly in chinese many scholars have argued that this shared material can be attributed to the period of pre sectarian buddhism citation needed this is the p...