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isphere 43 natural occurrence edit further information list of taxa that use parthenogenesis parthenogenesis does not apply to isogamous species 44 parthenogenesis occurs naturally in aphids daphnia rotifers nematodes and some other invertebrates as well as in many plants among vertebrates strict parthenogenesis is only known to occur in lizards snakes 45 birds 46 and sharks 47 fish amphibians and reptiles make use of various forms of gynogenesis and hybridogenesis an incomplete form of parthenogenesis 48 the first all female unisexual reproduction in vertebrates was described in the fish poecilia formosa in 1932 49 since then at least 50 species of unisexual vertebrates have been described including at least 20 fish 25 lizards a single snake species frogs and salamanders 48 artificial induction edit use of an electrical or chemical stimulus can produce the beginning of the process of parthenogenesis in the asexual development of viable offspring 50 induction of parthenogenesis in pigs 51 52 during oocyte development high metaphase promoting factor mpf activity causes mammalian oocytes to arrest at the metaphase ii stage until fertilization by a sperm the fertilization event causes intracellular calcium oscillations and targeted degradation of cyclin b a regulatory subunit of mpf thus permitting the mii arrested oocyte to proceed through meiosis 51 52 to initiate unfertilised development of swine oocytes various methods exist to induce an artificial activation that mimics sperm entry such as calcium ionophore treatment microinjection of calcium ions or electrical stimulation treatment with cycloheximide a non specific protein synthesis inhibitor enhances the development of unfertilised eggs in swine presumably by continual inhibition of mpf cyclin b 52 as meiosis proceeds extrusion of the second polar is blocked by exposure to cytochalasin b this treatment results in a diploid 2 maternal genomes parthenote 51 the resulting embryos can be surgically transferred to a recipient oviduct for further development but will succumb to developmental failure after 30 days of gestation the swine placenta in these cases often appears hypo vascular see free image figure 1 in linked reference 51 induced parthenogenesis of this type in mice and monkeys results in abnormal development this is because mammals have imprinted genetic regions where either the maternal or the paternal chromosome is inactivated in the offspring for development to proceed normally a mammal developing from parthenogenesis would have double doses of maternally imprinted genes and lack paternally imprinted genes leading to developmental abnormalities it has been suggested that defects in placental folding or interdigitation are one cause of swine parthenote abortive development 51 as a consequence research on the induced development of unfertilised eggs in humans is focused on the production of embryonic stem cells for use in medical treatment not as a reproductive strategy citation needed in 2022 researchers reported that they had produced viable offspring born from unfertilized eggs in mice addressing the problems of genomic imprinting by targeted dna methylation rewriting of seven imprinting control regions 11 in humans edit in 1955 the geneticist helen spurway who had studied the reproductive biology of the guppy poecilia reticulata claimed that parthenogenesis may rarely occur in humans leading to so called virgin births this created some sensation among her colleagues and the lay public alike 53 sometimes an embryo may begin to divide without fertilization but it cannot fully develop on its own so while it may create some skin and nerve cells it cannot create others such as skeletal muscle and becomes a type of benign tumor called an ovarian teratoma 54 in 1995 there was a reported case of partial human parthenogenesis a boy was found to have some of his cells such as white blood cells lacking any genetic content from his father scientists believe that an unfertilized egg began to self divide but then had some but not all of its cells fertilized by a sperm cell this must have happened early in development as self activated eggs quickly lose their ability to be fertilized the unfertilized cells eventually duplicated their dna boosting their chromosomes to 46 when the unfertilized cells hit a developmental block the fertilized cells took over and developed that tissue the boy had asymmetrical facial features and learning difficulties but was otherwise healthy this would make him a parthenogenetic chimera a child with two cell lineages in his body 55 while over a dozen similar cases have since been reported there have been no confirmed reports of a non chimeric clinically healthy human parthenote i e produced from a single parthenogenetic activated oocyte 54 in 2007 the international stem cell corporation of california announced that elena revazova had intentionally created human stem cells from unfertilized human eggs using parthenogenesis the process may offer a way to create stem cells genetically matched to a particular female to treat degenerative diseases the same year revazova and iscc published an article describing how to produce human stem cells that are homozygous in the hla region of dna 56 these stem cells are called hla homozygous parthenogenetic human stem cells hpsc hhom and would allow derivatives of these cells to be implanted without immune rejection with the selection of oocyte donors according to hla haplotype it would be possible to generate a bank of cell lines whose tissue derivatives collectively could be mhc matched with a significant number of individuals within the human population 57 an independent investigation found that the discredited south korean scientist hwang woo suk had unknowingly produced the first human embryos by parthenogenesis hwang had claimed falsely that his team had extracted stem cells from cloned human embryos the chromosomes of these cells showed indications of parthenogenesis in extracted stem cells similar to those of the mice created by tokyo scientists in 2004 58 similar phenomena edit androgenesis edit androgenesis is a system of asexual reproduction and occurs when a zygote is produced with only paternal nuclear genes 59 requiring the presence of eggs one of two things can occur to produce offspring with exclusively paternal genetic material the maternal nuclear genome can be eliminated from the zygote or the female can produce an egg with no nucleus resulting in an embryo developing with only the genome of the male gamete citation needed although androgenesis requires both male and females gametes it is not strictly considered a form of sexual reproduction because the offspring have uniparental nuclear dna that has not undergone recombination and the proliferation of androgenesis can lead to exclusively asexually reproducing species citation needed gynogenesis edit further information gynogenesis and parthenogenesis in amphibians gynogenesis a form of asexual reproduction related to parthenogenesis is gynogenesis here offspring are produced by the same mechanism as in parthenogenesis but with the requirement that the egg merely be stimulated by the presence of sperm to develop however the sperm cell does not contribute any genetic material to the offspring since gynogenetic species are all female activation of their eggs requires mating with males of a closely related species for the needed stimulus some salamanders of the genus ambystoma are gynogenetic and appear to have been so for over a million years the success of those salamanders may be due to rare fertilization of eggs by males introducing new material to the gene pool which may result from perhaps only one mating out of a million in addition the amazon molly is known to reproduce by gynogenesis 60 hybridogenesis edit further information hybridogenesis in water frogs example crosses between pool frog pelophylax lessonae marsh frog p ridibundus and their hybrid edible frog p kl esculentus on the left primary hybridisation generating a hybrid while the middle is the most widespread type of hybridogenesis 61 62 large circles adult frogs small circles gametes lack of gametes containing genome of one of the parental species hybridogenesis is a mode of reproduction of hybrids hybridogenetic hybrids for example ab genome usually females during gametogenesis exclude one of parental genomes a and produce gametes with unrecombined 61 genome of second parental species b instead of containing mixed recombined parental genomes first genome a is restored by fertilization of these gametes with gametes from the first species aa sexual host 61 usually male 61 63 64 hybridogenesis is not completely asexual but hemiclonal half the genome is passed to the next generation clonally unrecombined intact b other half sexually recombined a this process continues so that each generation is half or hemi clonal on the mother s side and has half new genetic material from the father s side 61 65 this form of reproduction is seen in some live bearing fish of the genus poeciliopsis 63 66 and in some of the pelophylax spp green frogs or waterfrogs p kl esculentus edible frog p lessonae p ridibundus 61 67 68 p kl grafi graf s hybrid frog p perezi p ridibundus 61 p kl hispanicus italian edible frog unknown origin p bergeri p ridibundus or p kl esculentus 61 other examples where hybridogenesis is at least one of the modes of reproduction include i e iberian minnow tropidophoxinellus alburnoides squalius pyrenaicus hypothetical ancestor related with anaecypris hispanica 69 spined loaches cobitis hankugensis c longicorpus 70 bacillus stick insects b rossius bacillus grandii benazzii 71 in human culture edit parthenogenesis in the form of reproduction from a mother alone is common in mythology religion and folklore around the world including in ancient greek myth in which gaia the earth gives birth to ouranos the heavens 72 and according to hesiod and others the god hephaestus is born from hera 73 in christianity and islam there is the virgin birth of jesus and stories of miraculous births also appear in other global religions 74 the theme is one of several aspects of reproductive biology explored in science fiction 75 see also edit telescoping generations charles bonnet genevan botanist 1720 1793 conducted experiments that established what is now termed parthenogenesis in aphids jan dzierżon polish apiarist 1811 1906 pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets polish apiarist and a pioneer of parthenogenesis among bees jacques loeb german born american physiologist and biologist caused the eggs of sea urchins to begin embryonic development without sperm parthenocarpy production of seedless fruit without fertilisation plants with seedless fruit references edit parthenogenesis merriam webster com dictionary merriam webster oclc 1032680871 parthenogenesis oxford dictionary oxforddictionaries com 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