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d of ethnology since the 1980s some anthropologists and other social scientists have questioned the degree to which participant observation can give veridical insight into the minds of other people 6 7 at the same time a more formalized qualitative research program known as grounded theory initiated by glaser and strauss 1967 8 began gaining currency within american sociology and related fields such as public health in response to these challenges some ethnographers have refined their methods either making them more amenable to formal hypothesis testing and replicability or framing their interpretations within a more carefully considered epistemology 9 the development of participant observation as a research tool has therefore not been a haphazard process but instead has involved a great deal of self criticism and review it has as a result become specialized visual anthropology can be viewed as a subset of methods of participant observation as the central questions in that field have to do with how to take a camera into the field while dealing with such issues as the observer effect 10 issues with entry into the field have evolved into a separate subfield clifford geertz s famous essay 6 on how to approach the multi faceted arena of human action from an observational point of view in interpretation of cultures uses the simple example of a human wink perceived in a cultural context far from home method and practice edit such research involves a range of well defined though variable methods informal interviews direct observation participation in the life of the group collective discussions analyses of personal documents produced within the group self analysis results from activities undertaken off or online and life histories although the method is generally characterized as qualitative research it can and often does include quantitative dimensions traditional participant observation is usually undertaken over an extended period of time ranging from several months to many years and even generations an extended research time period means that the researcher is able to obtain more detailed and accurate information about the individuals community and or population under study observable details like daily time allotment and more hidden details like taboo behavior are more easily observed and interpreted over a longer period of time a strength of observation and interaction over extended periods of time is that researchers can discover discrepancies between what participants say and often believe should happen the formal system and what actually does happen or between different aspects of the formal system in contrast a one time survey of people s answers to a set of questions might be quite consistent but is less likely to show conflicts between different aspects of the social system or between conscious representations and behavior 9 howell s phases of participant observation edit in participant observation a researcher s discipline based interests and commitments shape which events they consider are important and relevant to the research inquiry 11 according to howell 1972 the four stages that most participant observation research studies are establishing rapport or getting to know the people immersing oneself in the field recording data and observations and consolidating the information gathered 12 the phases are as follows 12 392 403 establishing rapport get to know the members visit the scene before study howell 12 states that it is important to become friends or at least be accepted in the community in order to obtain quality data in the field do as the locals do it is important for the researcher to connect or show a connection with the population in order to be accepted as a member of the community dewalt dewalt 2011 13 12 392 396 call this form of rapport establishment as talking the talk and walking the walk also mentioned by howell dewalt dewalt state that the researcher must strive to fit in with the population of study through moderation of language and participation 9 this sets the stage for how well the researcher blends in with the field and the quality of observable events they experience recording observations and data along with field notes and interviews researchers are encouraged to record their personal thoughts and feelings about the subject of study through reflexivity journals the researchers are prompted to think about how their experiences ethnicity race gender sex sexual orientation and other factors might influence their research in this case what the researcher decides to record and observe 14 researchers must be aware of these biases and enter the study with no misconceptions about not bringing in any subjectivities into the data collection process 9 14 15 analyzing data thematic analysis organizing data according to recurrent themes found in interviews or other types of qualitative data collection and narrative analysis categorizing information gathered through interviews finding common themes and constructing a coherent story from data types of participant observation edit participant observation is not simply showing up at a site and writing things down on the contrary participant observation is a complex method that has many components one of the first things that a researcher or individual must do after deciding to conduct participant observations to gather data is decide what kind of participant observer they will be spradley 1980 16 provides five different types of participant observations summarised below participant observation types type level of involvement limitations non participatory no contact with population or field of study unable to build rapport or ask questions as new information comes up 9 17 passive participation researcher is only in the bystander role limits ability to establish rapport and immersing oneself in the field 9 16 17 moderate participation researcher maintains a balance between insider and outsider roles this allows a good combination of involvement and necessary detachment to remain objective 9 17 active participation researcher becomes a member of the group by fully embracing skills and customs for the sake of complete comprehension this method permits the researcher to become more involved in the population there is a risk of going native as the researcher strives for an in depth understanding of the population studied 9 16 17 complete participation researcher is completely integrated in population of study beforehand i e they are already a member of particular population studied there is the risk of losing all levels of objectivity thus risking what is analyzed and presented to the public 9 16 17 limitations to any participant observation the recorded observations about a group of people or event is never going to be the full description 17 18 19 as mentioned before this is due to the selective nature of any type of recordable data process it is inevitably influenced by researchers personal beliefs of what is relevant and important 17 18 19 this also plays out in the analysis of collected data the researcher s worldview invariably influences how they interpret and evaluates the data 9 16 18 19 the researcher may not capture accurately what the participant or may misunderstand the meaning of the participant s words thus drawing inaccurate generalizations about the participant s perceptions 20 impact of researcher involvement edit the presence of the researcher in the field may influence the participants behavior causing the participants to behave differently than they would without the presence of the observer see observer expectancy effect 20 21 researchers engaging in this type of qualitative research method must be aware that participants may act differently or put up a facade that is in accordance to what they believe the researcher is studying 21 this is why it is important to employ rigor in any qualitative research study a useful method of rigor to employ is member checking or triangulation 22 23 according to richard fenno one problem in participant observation is the risk of going native by which he means that the researcher becomes so immersed in the world of the participant that the researcher loses scholarly objectivity 20 fenno also warns that the researcher may lose the ability and willingness to criticize the participant in order to maintain ties with the participant 20 while gathering data through participant observation investigator triangulation would be a way to ensure that one researcher is not letting their biases or personal preferences in the way of observing and recording meaningful experiences 23 as the name suggests investigator triangulation involves multiple research team members gathering data about the same event but this method ensures a variety of recorded observations due to the varying theoretical perspectives of each research team member 23 in other words triangulation be it data investigator theory or methodological triangulation is a form of cross checking information 22 23 member checking is when the researcher asks for participant feedback on their recorded observations to ensure that the researcher is accurately depicting the participants experiences and the accuracy of conclusions drawn from the data 23 this method can be used in participant observation studies or when conducting interviews 23 member checking and triangulation are good methods to use when conducting participant observations or any other form of qualitative research because they increase data and research conclusion credibility and transferability in quantitative research credibility is liken to internal validity 23 24 or the knowledge that our findings are representative of reality and transferability is similar to external validity or the extent to which the findings can be generalized across different populations methods and settings 23 24 a variant of participant observation is observing participation described by marek m kaminski who explored prison subculture as a political prisoner in communist poland in 1985 25 observing or observant participation has also been used to describe fieldwork in sexual minority subcultures by anthropologists and sociologists who are themselves lesbian gay bisexual or transgender 26 as well as amongst political activists and in protest events 27 the different phrasing is meant to highlight the way in which their partial or full membership in the community subculture that they are researching both allows a different sort of access to the community and also shapes their perceptions in ways different from a full outsider this is similar to considerations by anthropologists such as lila abu lughod on halfie anthropology or fieldwork by bicultural anthropologists on a culture to which they partially belong 28 ethical concerns edit as with any form of research dealing with human subjects the researcher must ensure the ethical boundaries are never crossed by those conducting the subjects of study the researcher must have clearly established boundaries before the onset of the study and have guidelines in place should any issues cross the line of ethical behavior one of the issues would be if the researcher is studying a population where illegal activities may occur or when working with minors children 9 in participant observation the ethical concern that is most salient is that of informed consent and voluntary participation 9 there is the issue of deciding to obtain informed consent from every individual in the group of study obtain the informed consent for participant observation from the person of leadership or not inform anyone of one s true purpose in fear of influencing the attitudes of members thus skewing the observations recorded 9 17 the decision is based on the nature of the study and the researcher s own personal thoughts on the cost benefit ratio of the situation participant observation also brings up the issue of voluntary participation in events the researcher observes and records 17 there may be instances when members do not want to be a part of the study and request that all data collected pertinent to them be removed in this case the researcher is obligated to relinquish data that may identify the members in any way above anything else it is the researcher s responsibility that the participants of the study do not suffer any ill effects directly or indirectly from the study participants are informed of their rights as subjects of the study and that the group was justly chosen for study 29 the american anthropological association aaa and american sociological association asa both have comprehensive statements concerning the code of conduct for research the aaa has developed a code of ethics to guide this practice 30 see also edit clinical ethnography creative participation educational psychology ethnobotany immersion journalism naturalistic observation participatory action research person centered ethnography scholar practitioner model qualitative research unobtrusive measures references edit degérando joseph marie 2013 1800 considérations sur les diverses méthodes à suivre dans l observation des peuples sauvages department of philosophy history human sciences in french national library of france and société des observateurs de l homme malinowski bronisław 1929 the sexual life of savages in north western melanesia new york halcyon house evans pritchard e e 1940 the nuer a description of the modes of livelihood and political institutions of a nilotic people oxford clarendon press mead margaret 1928 coming of age in samoa a psychological study of primitive youth for western civilisation new york william morrow co spicer edward h 1961 grenville goodwin arizona and the west 3 3 201 4 1 2 geertz clifford 1984 from the native s point of view on the nature of anthropological understanding pp 123 36 in culture theory essays on mind self and emotion edited by r a shweder and r levine new york cambridge university press rosaldo renato 1986 from the door of his tent the fieldworker and the inquisitor writing culture the poetics and politics of ethnography edited by j clifford and g e marcus berkeley calif university of california press glaser barney g and anselm l strauss 1967 the discovery of grounded theory strategies for qualitative research chicago aldine press 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 dewalt k m b r dewalt and c b wayland 1998 participant observation pp 259 99 in handbook of methods in cultural anthropology edited by h r bernard walnut creek calif altamira press collier john and malcolm collier 1986 visual anthropology photography as a research method emerson r m fretz r i shaw l l 2001 participant observation and fieldnotes in paul atkinson amanda coffey sara delamont john lofland lyn lofland eds handbook of ethnography pp 356 357 thousand oaks ca sage publications 1 2 3 4 howell joseph t 1972 hard living on clay street portraits of blue collar families prospect heights il 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