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duction some aerogels can be considered a more environmentally friendly alternative to other materials with degradable potential and the absence of toxic chemicals 79 57 aerogels can be useful as thermal insulation to reduce solar absorption and parasitic heat gain to improve the cooling performance of pdrc 80 candidates coating reflectance emittance temperature reduction notes superhydrophobic waste paper based cellulose aerogel 93 91 8 5 c in a building energy simulation the aerogel showed that 43 4 of cooling energy on average could be saved compared to the building baseline consumption in china if widely implemented 81 degradable and superhydrophobic stereo complex poly lactic acid aerogel with low thermal conductivity 89 93 3 5 c opens an environmentally sustainable pathway to radiative cooling applications 57 low cost silica alumina nanofibrous aerogels safas synthesized by electrospinning 95 93 5 c the safas exhibit high compression fatigue resistance robust fire resistance and excellent thermal insulation with low cost and high performance shows potential for further studies 79 clear sio 2 aerogel 7 7 c used an optical modulator n hexadecane in microparticles within a silicone elastomer matrix commercial silicon solar cells 82 nano bubbles edit pigments absorb light soap bubbles show a prism of different colors on their surfaces these colors result from the way light interacts with differing thicknesses of the bubble s surface termed structural color one study reported that cellulose nanocrystals cncs which are derived from the cellulose found in plants could be made into iridescent colorful films without added pigment they made films with blue green and red colors that when placed under sunlight were an average of nearly 7 f cooler than the surrounding air the film generated over 120 w m 2 of cooling power 83 biodegradable surfaces edit many proposed radiative cooling materials are not biodegradable a 2022 study reported that sustainable materials for radiative cooling have not been sufficiently investigated 30 candidates coating reflectance emittance temperature reduction notes eco friendly porous polymer structure via thermally induced phase separation 91 92 9 c sufficient durability for use on buildings and highest cooling effect reported among all organic based passive radiation cooling emitters 30 micro grating edit a silica micro grating photonic device cooled commercial silicon cells by 3 6 c under solar intensity of 830 990 w m 2 84 applications edit passive daytime radiative cooling has the potential to simultaneously alleviate the two major problems of energy crisis and global warming 1 along with an environmental protection refrigeration technology 36 pdrcs have an array of potential applications but are now most often applied to various aspects of the built environment such as building envelopes cool pavements and other surfaces to decrease energy demand costs and co 2 emissions 85 pdrc has been applied for indoor space cooling outdoor urban cooling solar cell efficiency power plant condenser cooling among other applications 7 4 29 for outdoor applications pdrc durability is an important requirement 45 indoor space cooling edit single family detached homes in the us suburbs are estimated to lower energy costs by 26 to 46 with pdrc implementation 86 the most common application is on building envelopes including cool roofs a pdrc can double the energy savings of a white roof 4 this makes pdrcs an alternative or supplement to air conditioning that lowers energy demand and reduces air conditioning s release of hydrofluorocarbons hfc into the atmosphere hfcs can be thousands of times more potent than co 2 7 4 37 8 air conditioning accounts for 12 15 of global energy usage 7 74 while co 2 emissions from air conditioning account for 13 7 of energy related co 2 emissions approximately 52 3 ej yearly 36 or 10 of total emissions 74 air conditioning applications are expected to rise 26 however this can be significantly reduced with the mass production of low cost pdrcs for indoor space cooling 7 8 87 a multilayer pdrc surface covering 10 of a building s roof can replace 35 of air conditioning used during the hottest hours of daytime 7 in suburban single family residential areas pdrcs can lower energy costs by 26 to 46 in the united states 86 and lower temperatures on average by 5 1 c with the addition of cold storage to utilize the excess cooling energy of water generated during off peak hours the cooling effects for indoor air during the peak cooling load times can be significantly enhanced and air temperatures may be reduced by 6 6 12 7 c 88 in cities pdrcs can produce significant energy and cost savings in a study on us cities zhou et al found that cities in hot and arid regions can achieve high annual electricity consumption savings of 2200 kilowatt hours kw h while 400 kw h is attainable in colder and more humid cities ranking from highest to lowest by electricity consumption savings as follows phoenix 2500 kw h las vegas 2250 kw h austin 2100 kw h honolulu 2050 kw h atlanta 1500 kw h indianapolis 1200 kw h chicago 1150 kw h new york city 900 kw h minneapolis 850 kw h boston 750 kw h seattle 350 kw h 88 in a study projecting energy savings for indian cities in 2030 mumbai and kolkata had a lower energy savings potential jaisalmer varansai and delhi had a higher potential although with significant variations from april to august dependent on humidity and wind cover 48 the growing interest and rise in pdrc application to buildings has been attributed to cost savings related to the sheer magnitude of the global building surface area with a market size of 27 billion in 2025 as estimated in a 2020 study 85 outdoor urban space cooling edit see also urban heat island a pdrc installed on a roof in kolkata exhibited a nearly 4 9 c 8 8 f decrease in surface ground temperatures with an average reduction of 2 2 c or 4 0 f 9 pdrc surfaces can mitigate extreme heat from the urban heat island effect that occurs in over 450 cities worldwide it can be as much as 10 12 c 18 22 f hotter in urban areas than nearby rural areas 9 10 on an average hot summer day the roofs of buildings can be 27 50 c 49 90 f hotter than the surrounding air warming air temperatures further through convection well insulated dark rooftops are significantly hotter than all other urban surfaces including asphalt pavements 10 further expanding air conditioning demand which further accelerates global warming and urban heat island through the release of waste heat into the ambient air and increasing risks of heat related disease and fatal health effects 9 39 40 pdrcs can be applied to building roofs and urban shelters to significantly lower surface temperatures with zero energy consumption by reflecting heat out of the urban environment and into outer space 9 10 the primary obstacle to pdrc implementation is the glare that may be caused through the reflection of visible light onto surrounding buildings colored pdrc surfaces may mitigate glare 62 such as zhai et al 26 super white paints with commercial high index n 1 9 retroreflective spheres 62 or the use of retroreflective materials rrm may also mitigate glare 10 surrounding buildings without pdrc may weaken the cooling power of pdrcs 86 even when installed on roofs in highly dense urban areas broadband radiative cooling panels lower surface temperatures at the sidewalk level 89 a 2022 study assessed the effects of pdrc surfaces in winter including non modulated and modulated pdrcs in the kolkata metropolitan area a non modulated pdrc with a reflectance of 0 95 and emissivity of 0 93 decreased ground surface temperatures by nearly 4 9 c 8 8 f and with an average daytime reduction of 2 2 c 4 0 f 9 while in summer the cooling effects of broadband non modulated pdrcs may be desirable they could present an uncomfortable overcooling effect for city populations in winter and thus increase energy use for heating this can be mitigated by broadband modulated pdrcs which they found could increase daily ambient urban temperatures by 0 4 1 4 c 0 72 2 52 f in winter while in kolkata overcooling is unlikely elsewhere it could have unwanted impacts therefore modulated pdrcs may be preferred in cities with warm summers and cold winters for controlled cooling while non modulated pdrcs may be more beneficial for cities with hot summers and moderate winters 9 in a study on urban bus shelters it was found that most shelters fail at providing thermal comfort for commuters while a tree could provide 0 5 c 0 90 f more cooling 86 other methods to cool shelters often involve air conditioning or other energy intensive measures urban shelters with pdrc roofing can significantly reduce temperatures with zero energy input while adding a non reciprocal mid infrared cover can increase benefits by reducing incoming atmospheric radiation as well as reflecting radiation from surrounding buildings 86 for outdoor urban space cooling a 2021 study recommended that pdrc in urban areas primarily focus on increasing albedo so long as emissivity can be maintained above 90 10 solar energy efficiency edit solar cell efficiency can be improved with pdrc application to reduce overheating and degradation of cells 4 pdrc surfaces can be integrated with solar energy plants referred to as solar energy radiative cooling se rc to improve functionality and performance by preventing solar cells from overheating and thus degrading since silicon solar cells have a maximum efficiency of 33 7 with the average commercial panel reaching around 20 the majority of absorbed power produces excess heat and increases the operating temperature 4 72 solar cell efficiency declines 0 4 0 5 for every 1 c increase in temperature 4 pdrc can extend the life of solar cells by lowering the operating temperature of the system 72 integrating pdrcs into solar energy systems is also relatively simple given that most solar energy harvesting systems have a sky facing flat plate structural design which is similar to radiative cooling systems integration has been reported to increase energy gain per unit area while increasing the fraction of the day the cell operates 14 methods have been proposed to potentially enhance cooling performance one 2022 study proposed using a full spectrum synergetic management fssm strategy to cool solar cells which combines radiative cooling and spectral splitting to enhance radiative heat dissipation and reduce the waste heat generated by the absorption of sub bg photons 90 personal thermal management edit personal thermal management ptm employs pdrc in fabrics to regulate body temperatures during extreme heat while other fabrics are useful for heat accumulation they may lead to heat stroke in hot weather 91 a 2021 study claimed that incorporating passive radiative cooling structures into personal thermal management technologies could effectively defend humans against intensifying global climate change 92 wearable pdrcs can come in different forms and target outdoor workers products are at the prototype stage 78 93 although most textiles are white colored wearable materials in select colors may be appropriate in some contexts 4 power plant condenser cooling edit power plant condensers used in thermoelectric power plants and concentrated solar plants csp can cool water for effective use within the heat exchanger a study of a pond covered with a radiative cooler reported that 150 w m 2 flux could be achieved without loss of water 7 pdrc can reduce water use and thermal pollution caused by water cooling 5 a review reported that supplementing the air cooled condenser for radiative cooling panels in a thermoelectric power plant condenser achieved a 4096 kwhth day cooling effect with a pump energy consumption of 11 kwh day 7 a concentrated solar plant csp on the co 2 supercritical cycle at 550 c was reported to produce 5 net output gain over an air cooled system by integration with 14 m2 kwe capacity radiative cooler 7 thermal regulation of buildings edit in addition to cooling pdrc surfaces can be modified for bi directional thermal regulation cooling and heating 9 this can be achieved through switching thermal emittance between high and low values 9 4 thermoelectric generation edit when combined with a thermoelectric generator a pdrc surface can generate small amounts of electricity 4 automobile and greenhouse cooling edit thermally enclosed spaces including automobiles and greenhouses are particularly susceptible to harmful temperature increases this is because of the heavy presence of windows which are transparent to incoming solar radiation yet opaque to outgoing long wave thermal radiation which causes them to heat rapidly in the sun automobile temperatures in direct sunlight can rise to 60 82 c when ambient temperatures is only 21 c 4 water harvesting edit dew harvesting yields may be improved via with pdrc selective pdrc emitters that have a high emissivity and broadband emitters may produce varying results in one study using a broadband pdrc the device condensed 8 5 ml day of water for 800 w m 2 of peak solar intensity 4 whereas selective emitters may be less advantageous in other contexts they may be superior for dew harvesting applications 44 pdrcs could improve atmospheric water harvesting by being combined with solar vapor generation systems to improve water collection rates 45 water and ice cooling edit pdrc surfaces can be installed over the surface of a body of water for cooling in a controlled study a body of water was cooled 10 6 c below the ambient temperature with the usage of a photonic radiator 7 failed verification pdrc surfaces have been developed to cool ice and prevent ice from melting under sunlight it has been proposed as a sustainable method for ice protection this can also be applied to protect refrigerated food from spoiling 94 side effects edit jeremy munday writes that although unexpected effects will likely occur pdrc structures can be removed immediately if needed unlike methods that involve dispersing particulate matter into the atmosphere which can last for decades 95 stratospheric aerosol injection might cause potentially dangerous threats to the earth s basic climate operations that may not be reversible preferring pdrc 2 zevenhoven et al state that instead of stratospheric aerosol injection sai cloud brightening or a large number of mirrors in the sky sunshade geoengineering to block out or reflect incoming short wave sw solar irradiation long wavelength lw thermal radiation can be selectively emitted and transferred through the atmosphere into space 3 overcooling and pdrc modulation edit modifying pdrcs with vanadium dioxide pictured can achieve temperature based switching from cooling to heating to mitigate the overcooling effect 19 overcooling is cited as a side effect of pdrcs that may be problematic especially when pdrcs are applied in high population areas with hot summers and cool winters characteristic o...