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d islands in the pacific saw the evolution of large birds and even reptiles such as the elephant bird moa haast s eagle quinkana megalania and meiolania the start of the pleistocene coincided with a significant acceleration of a drop in ungulate functional diversity around 2 5 ma that had been occurring since the late miocene likely as a result of the start of bipolar glaciation and consequent global aridification 31 the severe climatic changes during the ice age had major impacts on the fauna and flora with each advance of the ice large areas of the continents became depopulated and plants and animals retreating southwards in front of the advancing glacier faced tremendous stress the most severe stress resulted from drastic climatic changes reduced living space and curtailed food supply a major extinction event of large mammals megafauna which included mammoths mastodons saber toothed cats glyptodons the woolly rhinoceros various giraffids such as the sivatherium ground sloths irish elk cave lions cave bears gomphotheres american lions dire wolves and short faced bears began late in the pleistocene and continued into the holocene neanderthals also became extinct during this period at the end of the last ice age cold blooded animals smaller mammals like wood mice migratory birds and swifter animals like whitetail deer had replaced the megafauna and migrated north late pleistocene bighorn sheep were more slender and had longer legs than their descendants today scientists believe that the change in predator fauna after the late pleistocene extinctions resulted in a change of body shape as the species adapted for increased power rather than speed 32 the extinctions hardly affected africa but were especially severe in north america where native horses and camels were wiped out various schemes for subdividing the pleistocene asian land mammal ages alma include zhoukoudianian nihewanian and yushean european land mammal ages elma include the villafranchian galerian and aurelian north american land mammal ages nalma include blancan 4 75 1 8 irvingtonian 1 8 0 24 and rancholabrean 0 24 0 01 in millions of years the blancan extends significantly back into the pliocene south american land mammal ages salma include uquian 2 5 1 5 ensenadan 1 5 0 3 and lujanian 0 3 0 01 in millions of years the uquian previously extended significantly back into the pliocene although the new definition places it entirely within the pleistocene in july 2018 a team of russian scientists in collaboration with princeton university announced that they had brought two female nematodes frozen in permafrost from around 42 000 years ago back to life the two nematodes at the time were the oldest confirmed living animals on the planet 33 34 pleistocene of northern spain including woolly mammoth cave lions eating a reindeer horses and woolly rhinoceros pleistocene of south america including megatherium and two glyptodon humans edit main articles human evolution paleolithic and settlement of the americas remain of epipalaeolithic 1a 13 300 12 800 cal bp pit house dwellings in the foreground and reconstruction of phase 1a pit dwellings of abu hureyra 35 the evolution of anatomically modern humans took place during the pleistocene 36 37 at the beginning of the pleistocene paranthropus species were still present as well as early human ancestors but during the lower palaeolithic they disappeared and the only hominin species found in fossilic records is homo erectus for much of the pleistocene acheulean lithics appear along with homo erectus some 1 8 million years ago replacing the more primitive oldowan industry used by australopithecus garhi and by the earliest species of homo the middle paleolithic saw more varied speciation within homo including the appearance of homo sapiens about 300 000 years ago 38 artifacts associated with modern human behavior are unambiguously attested starting 40 000 50 000 years ago 39 according to mitochondrial timing techniques modern humans migrated from africa after the riss glaciation in the middle palaeolithic during the eemian stage spreading all over the ice free world during the late pleistocene 40 41 42 a 2005 study posits that humans in this migration interbred with archaic human forms already outside of africa by the late pleistocene incorporating archaic human genetic material into the modern human gene pool 43 hominin species during pleistocene see also edit earth sciences portal evolutionary biology portal geology portal paleontology portal climate change pleistocene megafauna pleistocene park quaternary glaciation explanatory notes edit the upper pleistocene is a subseries subepoch rather than a stage age but in 2009 the iugs decided that it will be replaced with a stage age currently unofficially informally named the tarantian 15 references edit international chronostratigraphic chart pdf international commission on stratigraphy december 2024 retrieved 23 october 2025 gibbard philip head martin september 2010 the newly ratified definition of the quaternary system period and redefinition of the pleistocene series epoch and comparison of proposals advanced prior to formal ratification pdf episodes 33 3 152 158 doi 10 18814 epiiugs 2010 v33i3 002 retrieved 8 december 2020 walker mike johnse sigfus rasmussen sune steffensen jørgen peder popp trevor gibbard phillip et al june 2008 the global stratotype section and point gssp for the base of the holocene series epoch quaternary system period in the ngrip ice core episodes 31 2 264 267 doi 10 18814 epiiugs 2008 v31i2 016 hdl 10289 920 jones daniel 2003 1917 pleistocene in peter roach james hartman jane setter eds english pronouncing dictionary cambridge cambridge university press isbn 3 12 539683 2 pleistocene dictionary com unabridged online n d zalloua pierre a matisoo smith elizabeth 6 january 2017 mapping post glacial expansions the peopling of southwest asia scientific reports 7 40338 bibcode 2017natsr 740338p doi 10 1038 srep40338 issn 2045 2322 pmc 5216412 pmid 28059138 lyell charles 1839 nouveaux éléments de géologie in french paris france pitois levranet p 621 from p 621 toutefois en même temps et de substituer à la dénomination de nouveau pliocène celle plus abrégée de pleistocène tirée du grec pleiston plus et kainos récent however at the same time that it became necessary to subdivide the two periods mentioned above i found that the terms intended to designate these subdivisions were of an inconvenient length and i have proposed to use in the future the word pliocene for old pliocene and to substitute for the name new pliocene this shorter pleistocene drawn from the greek pleiston most and kainos recent wilmarth mary grace 1925 bulletin 769 the geologic time classification of the united states geological survey compared with other classifications accompanied by the original definitions of era period and epoch terms washington d c u s u s government printing office p 47 pleistocene online etymology dictionary 1 2 major divisions subcommission on quaternary stratigraphy international commission on stratigraphy retrieved 17 december 2024 for the top of the series see lourens l hilgen f shackleton n j laskar j wilson d 2004 the neogene period in gradstein f ogg j smith a g eds a geologic time scale 2004 cambridge cambridge university press isbn 0 521 78142 6 de blij harm 2012 holocene humanity why geography matters more than ever 2nd ed oxford oxford university press isbn 978 0 19 991374 9 international chronostratigraphic chart v2017 02 international commission on stratigraphy 2017 retrieved 17 march 2018 japan based name chibanian set to represent geologic age of last magnetic shift the japan times 14 november 2017 retrieved 17 march 2018 formal subdivision of the pleistocene series epoch subcommission on quaternary stratigraphy international commission on stratigraphy 4 january 2016 retrieved 17 march 2018 riccardi alberto c 30 june 2009 iugs ratified ics recommendation on redefinition of pleistocene and formal definition of base of quaternary international union of geological sciences svensson a nielsen s w kipfstuhl s johnsen s j steffensen j p bigler m ruth u röthlisberger r 2005 visual stratigraphy of the north greenland ice core project northgrip ice core during the last glacial period pdf journal of geophysical research 110 d2 d02108 bibcode 2005jgrd 110 2108s doi 10 1029 2004jd005134 gradstein felix m ogg james g and smith a gilbert eds 2005 a geologic time scale 2004 cambridge university press cambridge uk p 28 isbn 0 521 78142 6 rio d sprovieri r castradori d di stefano e 1998 the gelasian stage upper pliocene a new unit of the global standard chronostratigraphic scale pdf episodes 21 2 82 87 doi 10 18814 epiiugs 1998 v21i2 002 coles j m 1975 the archaeology of early man e s higgs harmondsworth penguin isbn 0 14 055107 7 oclc 2966860 von der heyden sophie 17 april 2023 disentangling population structure in marine species nature reviews 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deposits of the north central united states pdf geological society of america bulletin 116 1 2 30 41 bibcode 2004gsab 116 30r doi 10 1130 b25325 1 archived from the original pdf on 28 september 2018 retrieved 20 march 2010 aber j s december 1991 the glaciation of northeastern kansas boreas 20 4 297 314 bibcode 1991borea 20 297a doi 10 1111 j 1502 3885 1991 tb00282 x contains a summary of how and why the nebraskan aftonian kansan and yarmouthian stages were abandoned by modern stratigraphers willeit m ganopolski a calov r brovkin v 2019 mid pleistocene transition in glacial cycles explained by declining co2 and regolith removal science advances science advances 5 4 eaav7337 doi 10 1126 sciadv aav7337 pmc 6447376 pmid 30949580 petra bajo et al 2020 persistent influence of obliquity on ice age terminations since the middle pleistocene transition science vol 367 no 6483 pp 1235 1239 doi 10 1126 science aaw1114 lee kyung eun clemens steven c kubota yoshimi timmermann axel holbourn ann yeh 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harvati katerina gunz philipp 8 june 2017 new fossils from jebel irhoud morocco and the pan african origin of homo sapiens pdf nature 546 7657 289 292 bibcode 2017natur 546 289h doi 10 1038 nature22336 hdl 1887 74734 pmid 28593953 s2cid 256771372 klein richard 1995 anatomy behavior and modern human origins journal of world prehistory 9 2 167 198 doi 10 1007 bf02221838 s2cid 10402296 cann r l stoneking m wilson a c 1 january 1987 mitochondrial dna and human evolution nature 325 6099 31 36 bibcode 1987natur 325 31c doi 10 1038 325031a0 pmid 3025745 s2cid 4285418 stringer c b 1992 evolution of early modern humans in jones steve martin r and pilbeam david r eds 1992 the cambridge encyclopedia of human evolution cambridge university press cambridge isbn 0 521 32370 3 pp 241 251 templeton a r 7 march 2002 out of africa again and again pdf nature 416 6876 45 51 bibcode 2002natur 416 45t doi 10 1038 416045a pmid 11882887 s2cid 4397398 archived from the original pdf on 12 april 2020 retrieved 17 november 2017 eswarana vinayak harpendingb henry rogers alan r july 2005 genomics refutes an exclusively african origin of humans journal of human evolution 49 1 1 18 bibcode 2005jhume 49 1e doi 10 1016 j jhevol 2005 02 006 pmid 15878780 ogg jim june 2004 overview of global boundary stratotype sections and points gssp s international commission on stratigraphy retrieved 20 march 2019 external links edit wikimedia commons has media related to pleistocene wikisource has original works on the topic cenozoic quaternary late pleistocene environments of the southern high plains 1975 edited by wendorf and hester pleistocene microfossils 50 images of foraminifera stepanchuk v n sapozhnykov i v nature and man in the pleistocene of ukraine 2010 human timeline interactive smithsonian national museum of natural history august 2016 pleistocene park conservation project to restore a pleistocene ecology and protect permafrost soils in northern siberia the climate chronicles a multimedia production on the history of climate change i...