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rmanic 21 antonsen s own scheme divides proto germanic into an early stage and a late stage the early stage includes the stress fixation and resulting spontaneous vowel shifts while the late stage is defined by ten complex rules governing changes of both vowels and consonants 22 phonological stages from proto indo european to end of proto germanic edit the following changes are known or presumed to have occurred in the history of proto germanic in the wider sense from the end of proto indo european up to the point that proto germanic began to break into mutually unintelligible dialects the changes are listed roughly in chronological order with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list the stages distinguished and the changes associated with each stage rely heavily on ringe 2006 who in turn summarizes standard concepts and terminology pre proto germanic pre pgmc edit this stage began with the separation of a distinct speech perhaps while it still formed part of the proto indo european dialect continuum it contained many innovations that were shared with other indo european branches to various degrees probably through areal contacts and mutual intelligibility with other dialects would remain for some time it was nevertheless on its own path whether dialect or language allophonic colouring of e adjacent to laryngeal consonants h e h a h énti in front h ánti andi in addition eh ah meh tḗr mother mah tḗr mōdēr h e h o h érō eagle h órō arô eh oh bʰléh mō flower bʰlóh mō blōmô merging of pie palatovelar and velar plosives centumization ḱ k ḱm̥tóm hundred km̥tóm hundą ǵ g wérǵom work wérgom werką ǵʰ gʰ ǵʰh yéti to go walk gʰh yéti gaiþi the actual pronunciation of the palatovelar and velar series is not reconstructible it may be that the palatovelars were actually plain velars and the velars were pronounced even farther back post velar or uvular so it may be more accurate to say that for example k ḱ 23 some also claim that the two series may not even have been distinct in pie see centum and satem languages epenthesis of u before the syllabic sonorants m̥ um ḱm̥tóm hundred kumtóm hundą n̥ un n̥tér inside untér under among l̥ ul wĺ̥kʷos wolf wúlkʷos wulfaz r̥ ur wŕ̥mis worm wúrmis wurmiz an epenthetic s was inserted already in pie after dental consonants when they were followed by a suffix beginning with a dental this sequence now becomes tst ts ss wid tós known pronounced widstos witstós wissós wissaz certain geminate consonants are shortened after a consonant or a long vowel káyd tis act of calling pronounced káydstis káyssis káysis haisiz command word final long vowels are lengthened to overlong vowels séh mō seeds séh mô sēmô loss of laryngeals phonemicising the allophones of e word initial laryngeals are lost before a consonant h dóntm̥ tooth acc dóntum tanþų laryngeals are lost before vowels h ésti is ésti isti laryngeals are lost after vowels but lengthen the preceding vowel vh vː séh mō seeds sēmô two vowels that come to stand in hiatus because of that change contract into an overlong vowel ohom genitive plural ôm ǫ̂ eh es eh stem nom pl âs ôz in word final position the resulting long vowels remain distinct from shorter than the overlong vowels that were formed from pie word final long vowels oh thematic 1st sg ō laryngeals remain between consonants cowgill s law h and possibly h is strengthened to g between a sonorant and w gʷih wós alive gʷigwós kwikwaz vocalisation of remaining laryngeals h ə ph tḗr father pətḗr fadēr sámh dʰos sand sámədʰos samdaz velars are labialised by following w éḱwos horse ékwos ékʷos ehwaz labiovelars are delabialised next to u or un or before t kʷ k nókʷts night nókts nahts gʷ g gʷémtis gʷm̥téys step act of walking gʷumtís gumtís kumþiz coming arrival gʷʰ gʰ gʷʰéntis gʷʰn̥tís killing gʷʰuntís gʰuntís gunþiz battle this rule continued to operate into the proto germanic period early proto germanic edit this stage began its evolution as a dialect of proto indo european that had lost its laryngeals and had five long and six short vowels as well as one or two overlong vowels the consonant system was still that of pie minus palatovelars and laryngeals but the loss of syllabic resonants already made the language markedly different from pie proper mutual intelligibility might have still existed with other descendants of pie but it would have been strained and the period marked the definitive break of germanic from the other indo european languages and the beginning of germanic proper containing most of the sound changes that are now held to define this branch distinctively this stage contained various consonant and vowel shifts the loss of the contrastive accent inherited from pie for a uniform accent on the first syllable of the word root and the beginnings of the reduction of the resulting unstressed syllables loss of word final non high short vowels e a o wóyde s he knows wóyd wait a j or w preceding the vowel is also lost tósyo of that tós þas single syllable words were not affected but clitics were kʷe and kʷ hw when the lost vowel was accented the accent shifted to the preceding syllable n̥smé us n̥swé unswé úns uns not unz showing that loss occurred before verner s law grimm s law chain shift of the three series of plosives voiced plosives had already been devoiced before a voiceless obstruent prior to this stage labiovelars were delabialised before t voiceless plosives become fricatives unless preceded by another obstruent in a sequence of two voiceless obstruents the second obstruent remains a plosive p ɸ f ph tḗr father pətḗr faþḗr 24 fadēr t θ þ tód that þód þat k x h kátus fight háþus haþuz h eǵs axle devoicing aks ahs ahsō kʷ xʷ hw kʷód what hʷód hwat since the second of two obstruents is unaffected the sequences sp st sk and skʷ remain the above also forms the germanic spirant law bt bʰt pt ɸt kh ptós grabbed kəptós həftós haftaz captive gt gʰt kt xt oḱtṓw eight oktṓw ohtṓw ahtōu gʷt gʷʰt kʷt xt nokʷtm̥ night acc noktum nohtum nahtų voiced plosives are devoiced b p h ébōl apple ápōl aplaz reformed as a stem d t h dóntm̥ tooth acc tónþum tanþų kʷód what hʷód hwat g k wérǵom work wérgom wérkom werką gʷ kʷ gʷémeti s he will step subj kʷémeþi kwimidi s he comes aspirated plosives become voiced plosives or fricatives see below bʰ b b β between vowels bʰéreti s he is carrying béreþi biridi dʰ d d ð between vowels dʰóh mos thing put dṓmos dōmaz judgement gʰ g g ɣ between vowels possibly word initially gʰáns goose gáns gans gʷʰ gʷ gʷ ɣʷ between vowels and possibly word initially sóngʷʰos chant sóngʷos sangwaz song verner s law voiceless fricatives are voiced when preceded by an unaccented vowel including cases where the vowel and fricative are separated by a sonorant n m r l j w this allophonic voicing became phonemic only after the regularization of stress placement see below ɸ β upéri over uféri ubéri ubiri θ ð tewtéh tribe þewþā́ þewdā́ þeudō x ɣ h yuhn̥ḱós young yunkós yunhós yungós jungaz with z by analogy xʷ ɣʷ kʷekʷléh wheels collective hʷehʷlā́ hʷegʷlā́ hweulō s z h régʷeses of darkness rékʷeses rékʷezez rikwiziz kʷékʷlos wheel hʷéhʷlos hʷéhʷloz hwehwlaz some small words that were generally unaccented were also affected h ésmi unstressed h esmi i am esmi ezmi immi h sénti unstressed h senti they are senþi sendi sindi the stressed variants which would have become ismi and sinþi were lost all words become stressed on their first syllable the pie contrastive accent is lost phonemicising the voicing distinction created by verner s law word initial gʷ b dubious discuss gʷʰédʰyeti s he is asking for gʷédyedi bédyedi bidiþi s he asks s he prays with þ by analogy unstressed owo oː owos thematic first du ōz unstressed ew ow before a consonant or word finally ews u stem gen sg owz auz unstressed e i except before r éteh abstract noun suffix eþā iþā iþō unstressed ej contracts to iː éys i stem gen sg iys īs īz with z by analogy e before r later becomes ɑ but not until after the application of i mutation some words that could be unstressed as a whole were also affected often creating stressed unstressed pairs éǵh i ek unstressed ik remaining beside stressed ek unstressed ji i légʰyeti s he is lying down légʰyonti they are lying down legyidi legyondi legidi legyondi ligiþi ligjanþi with þ by analogy the process creates diphthongs from originally disyllabic sequences oyend thematic optative 3pl oyint oint ain áyeri in the morning ayiri airi early tréyes three þreyiz þreiz þrīz the sequence iji becomes iː gʰósteyes strangers nom pl gostiyiz gostīz gastīz guests merging of non high back vowels o a ɑ a gʰóstis stranger gostiz gastiz guest kápros he goat hafraz oː aː ɑː ā dʰóh mos thing put dōmoz dāmaz dōmaz judgement swéh dus sweet swātuz swōtuz oːː aːː ɑːː â séh mō seeds sēmô sēmâ sēmô eh es eh stem nom pl âz ôz late proto germanic edit by this stage germanic had emerged as a distinctive branch and had undergone many of the sound changes that would make its later descendants recognisable as germanic languages it had shifted its consonant inventory from a system that was rich in plosives to one containing primarily fricatives had lost the pie mobile pitch accent for a predictable stress accent and had merged two of its vowels the stress accent had already begun to cause the erosion of unstressed syllables which would continue in its descendants the final stage of the language included the remaining development until the breakup into dialects and most notably featured the development of nasal vowels and the start of umlaut another characteristic germanic feature word final m n tóm that acc masc þam þan then om a stem acc sg am an ą m n before dental consonants ḱm̥tóm hundred humdan hundan hundą déḱm̥d ten tehumt tehunt tehun word final n is lost after unstressed syllables and the preceding vowel is nasalised om a stem acc sg am an ą eh m ān ą̄ ǭ ohom genitive plural ân ą̂ ǫ̂ nasal ẽː is lowered to ɑ̃ː dʰédʰeh m i was putting dedēn dedę̄ dedą̄ dedǭ elimination of ə unstressed ə is lost between consonants sámh dʰos sand samədaz samdaz takéh to be silent with added suffix takəyónti they are silent þagəyanþi þagyanþi þagjanþi ə ɑ elsewhere ph tḗr father fədēr fadēr takéh to be silent with added suffix takəyéti s he is silent þagəyiþi þagəiþi þagaiþi assimilation of sonorants nw nn ténh us thin fem tn̥h éwih tn̥h ús tn̥h wíh þunus þunwī þunus þunnī þunnuz þunnī ln ll pl̥h nós full pulnos fullaz 25 this development postdated contact with the samic languages as is shown by the loanword pulna proto samic polnē hill ock mound 26 zm mm h esmi i am unstr ezmi emmi immi loss of word final t after unstressed syllables déḱm̥d ten tehunt tehun bʰéroyd s he would carry subj berayt berai mélid mélit honey melit melid meli melid mili milid ɣʷ w sometimes ɣ snóygʷʰos snow snaygʷaz snaiwaz gʷʰréndʰonom to crush gwrendaną grindaną this effectively turns gʷ from an allophone of ɣʷ into its own phoneme long a is raised ɑː ɔː dʰóh mos thing put dāmaz dōmaz judgement swéh dus sweet swātuz swōtuz ɑːː ɔːː séh mō seeds sēmâ sēmô eh es eh stem nom pl âz ôz that followed the earliest contact with the romans since latin rōmānī was borrowed as rūmānīz and then shifted to rūmōnīz finnic loanwords preceding the change are also known finnish hake to seek from early proto germanic sākija later sōkija finnish raha money from early proto germanic skrahā squirrel skin later skrahō finnish kavio hoof from pre proto germanic kāpa hoof later hōfa finnish lieka tether from pre proto germanic lēgā to lie be at rest later lēgō as demonstrated by the later loan lieko windfallen or decayed tree early i mutation e i when followed by i or j in the same or next syllable bʰéreti s he is carrying beridi biridi médʰyos middle medjaz midjaz néwios new newjaz niwjaz this eliminates the remaining ei changing it to iː deywós god teiwaz attested as teiva in the negau helmet tīwaz týr tréyes three þreiz þrīz a number of loanwords in the finnic and samic demonstrate earlier e e g finnish teljo thwart from early proto germanic þeljō later þiljō finnish menninkäinen goblin from early proto germanic menþingō later minþingō northern sami deahkki thick meat from early proto germanic þekkwiz thick later þikkwiz 26 northern sami jievja white of animal or hair from early proto germanic heują later hiują e i when followed by a syllable final nasal en in in séngʷʰeti s he chants sengʷidi singwidi s he sings finnic loanwords demonstrating earlier e are again known finnish rengas ring from early proto germanic hrengaz later hringaz j is lost between vowels except after i and w but it is lost after syllabic u the two vowels that come to stand in hiatus then contract to long vowels or diphthongs oyh m̥ thematic optative 1sg sg oyum ayų aų h eyeri in the morning ayiri airi early this process creates a new ɑː from earlier ɑjɑ steh to stand with suffix added sth yónti they stand stayanþi stānþi n is lost before x causing compensatory lengthening and nasalisation of the preceding vowel ḱónketi s he hangs hanhidi phonetically ˈxɑ̃ːxiði lexical evidence in other language varieties edit loans into proto germanic from other known languages or from proto germanic into other languages can be dated relative to each other by which germanic sound laws have acted on them since the dates of borrowings and sound laws are not precisely known it is not possible to use loans to establish absolute or calendar chronology loans from adjoining indo european groups edit most loans from celtic appear to have been made before or during the germanic sound shift 12 27 for instance one specimen rīks ruler was borrowed from celtic rīxs king stem rīg with g k 28 it is clearly not native because pie ē ī is typical not of germanic but of celtic languages another is walhaz foreigner celt from the celtic tribal name volcae with k h and o a other likely celtic loans include ambahtaz servant brunjǭ mailshirt gīslaz hostage īsarną iron lēkijaz healer laudą lead rīnaz rhine and tūnaz tūną fortified enclosure note 5 these loans would likely have been borrowed during the celtic hallstatt and early la tène cultures when the celts dominated central europe although the period spanned several centuries from east iranian came hanapiz hemp compare khotanese kaṃhā ossetian gæn æ flax 29 humalaz humalǭ hops compare ossetian xumællæg keppǭ skēpą sheep compare persian čapiš yearling kid kurtilaz tunic cf osset kʷəræt shirt kutą cottage compare persian kad house paidō cloak 30 paþaz path compare avestan pantā gen pathō and wurstwą work compare avestan vərəštuua note 6 the words could have been transmitted directly by the scythians from the ukraine plain groups of whom entered central europe via the danube and created the vekerzug culture in the carpathian basin sixth to fifth centuries bc or by later contact with sarmatians who followed the same route 31 unsure is marhaz horse which was either borrowed directly from scytho sarmatian or through celtic mediation loans into non german...