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was closely tied to the expansion of literacy the growth of the press and the rise of mass political participation politicians held large local meetings and their speeches were widely disseminated 12 newspapers played an increasingly central role according to historian aled jones the energies released by victorian politics promoted a lively and heterogeneous press and the emergence of reformed political and administrative systems was the subject of intense scrutiny and speculation by journalists and their readers throughout britain 13 14 the expansion of the electorate was the major theme of 19th century british reform movements the reform acts notably 1832 1867 and 1884 progressively expanded the franchise allowing more men especially from the middle and working classes to vote the reforms greatly enlarged the political power of the fast growing cities and sharply reduced the role of small rotten boroughs controlled by elite families each reform was a response to social pressures and the growing recognition of public opinion s legitimacy by 1900 about 40 of the men could vote and the political parties competed vigorously to appeal to a broader public 15 political analyst a v dicey argued that public opinion ruled england more than any other country due to its advanced civil society and responsive constitution 16 theory edit the german sociologist ferdinand tönnies by using the conceptional tools of his theory of gemeinschaft and gesellschaft argued kritik der öffentlichen meinung 1922 that public opinion has the equivalent social function in societies gesellschaften which religion has in communities gemeinschaften 17 german social theorist jürgen habermas contributed the idea of public sphere to the discussion of public opinion according to habermas the public sphere or bourgeois public is where something approaching public opinion can be formed 18 habermas claimed that the public sphere featured universal access rational debate and disregard for rank however he believes that these three features for how public opinion are best formed are no longer in place in western liberal democratic countries public opinion in western democracy is highly susceptible to elite manipulation the american sociologist herbert blumer has proposed an altogether different conception of the public according to blumer public opinion is discussed as a form of collective behavior another specialized term which is made up of those who are discussing a given public issue at any one time given this definition there are many publics each of them comes into being when an issue arises and ceases to exist when the issue is resolved blumer claims that people participate in public in different capacities and to different degrees and public opinion polling cannot measure the public an educated individual s participation is more important than that of a drunk the mass in which people independently make decisions about for example which brand of toothpaste to buy is a form of collective behavior different from the public citation needed public opinion plays an important role in the political sphere cutting across all aspects of the relationship between government and public opinion are studies of voting behavior these have registered the distribution of opinions on a wide variety of issues have explored the impact of special interest groups on election outcomes and have contributed to our knowledge about the effects of government propaganda and policy contemporary quantitative approaches to the study of public opinion may be divided into four categories citation needed quantitative measurement of opinion distributions investigation of the internal relationships among the individual opinions that make up public opinion on an issue description or analysis of the public role of public opinion study both of the communication media that disseminate the ideas on which opinions are based and of the uses that propagandists and other manipulators make of these media formation edit numerous theories and substantial evidence exist to explain the formation and dynamics of individuals opinions much of this research draws on psychological research on attitudes in communications studies and political science mass media are often seen as influential forces on public opinion additionally political socialization and behavioral genetics sometimes explain public opinion mass media effects edit see also media manipulation and propaganda through media the formation of public opinion starts with agenda setting by major media outlets throughout the world this agenda setting dictates what is newsworthy and how and when it will be reported the media agenda is set by a variety of different environmental and news work factors that determine which stories will be newsworthy another key component in the formation of public opinion is framing framing is when a story or piece of news is portrayed in a particular way and is meant to sway the consumer s attitude one way or the other most political issues are heavily framed in order to persuade voters to vote for a particular candidate for example if candidate x once voted on a bill that raised income taxes on the middle class a framing headline would read candidate x doesn t care about the middle class this puts candidate x in a negative frame to the news reader social desirability is another key component to the formation of public opinion social desirability is the idea that people in general will form their opinions based on what they believe is the prevalent opinion of the social group they identify with based on media agenda setting and media framing most often a particular opinion gets repeated throughout various news mediums and social networking sites until it creates a false vision where the perceived truth can actually be very far away from the actual truth when asked for their opinion on a subject about which they are uninformed people often provide pseudo opinions they believe will please the questioner 19 public opinion can be influenced by public relations and the political media additionally mass media utilizes a wide variety of advertising techniques to get their message out and change the minds of people since the 1950s television has been the main medium for molding public opinion 20 since the late 2000s the internet has become a platform for forming public opinion surveys have shown that more people get their news from social media and news websites as opposed to print newspapers 21 the accessibility of social media allows public opinion to be formed by a broader range of social movements and news sources gunn enli identifies the internet s effect on public opinion as being characterised by an intensified personalisation of political advocacy and increased anti elitism popularisation and populism 22 public opinion has become more varied as a result of online news sources being influenced by political communication and agenda setting relationships between mass media and public opinion arise as social media becomes more widespread this 2013 study examines the effects mass media has on poverty this negative social construction surrounding poverty made society change from a positive viewpoint to a negative one it analyzes how that negative social construction affects policymaking and government spending the results indicate that public policy regarding u s poverty is driven by the portrayal of the poor as deserving or lazy 23 this 2017 study takes a different perspective on mass media effects the study examines the media coverage of firearm related incidents involving children the study identifies three main frameworks the media framed these types of incidents blameless accidents accidental shootings that occurred in the context of play such as hunting criminalization both the children and the parents were arrested and charged and responsibilization blame on irresponsible parents and gun owners 24 inaccurate opinion polls can affect the public opinion 25 role of influentials edit see also two step flow of communication there have been a variety of academic studies investigating whether or not public opinion is influenced by influentials or persons that have a significant effect on influencing the opinion of the general public regarding any relevant issues many early studies 26 27 have modeled the transfer of information from mass media sources to the general public as a two step process in this process information from mass media and other far reaching sources of information influences influentials and influentials then influence the general public as opposed to the mass media directly influencing the public while the two step process regarding public opinion influence has motivated further research on the role of influential persons a more recent study by watts and dodds 2007 28 suggests that while influentials play some role in influencing public opinion non influential persons that make up the general public are also just as likely if not more likely to influence opinion provided that the general public is composed of persons that are easily influenced this is referred to in their work as the influential hypothesis the authors discuss such results by using a model to quantify the number of people influenced by both the general public and influentials the model can be easily customized to represent a variety of ways that influencers interact with each other as well as the general public in their study such a model diverges from the prior paradigm of the two step process the watts and dodds model introduces a model of influence emphasizing lateral channels of influence between the influencers and general public categories thus this leads to a more complex flow of influence amongst the three parties involved in influencing public opinion i e media influencers and general public influentials shape opinion through producing testimonials celebrity endorsements and expert opinions furthermore they also have credibility and emotional appeal their beliefs shaped by their experiences and academic knowledge provide a foundation to the nascent mind lastly the persuasive power adds more exertion in this regard misinformation edit according to the social science research council we are in the midst of a perfect storm of misinformation where the wrong information or lack of it can be deadly 29 cognitive psychologists such as lewandowsky et al have defined misinformation as any piece of information that is initially processed as valid but is subsequently retracted or corrected 30 there are two common types of misinformation according to hochschild a political scientist 31 there are inactive informed and active misinformed inactive informed is when one knows the right information but chooses to ignore it active misinformed is when one believes incorrect information and uses that incorrect information people can move from active misinformed to active informed by being presented with information in ways that persuade them in an impactful way 31 social media misinformation edit social media affects public opinion as content that is created and shared can affect how individuals form an opinion on societal issues 32 according to ambassador ret karen kornbluh senior fellow and director of the digital innovation and democracy initiative at the german marshall fund social media has led to misinformation through radicalization to extremism 33 social media platforms such as tiktok and youtube recommend content that has the potential to spread misinformation due to the way their content algorithms are set up content that is more inflammatory tends to get sent out to users as it keeps them more engaged this also allows extremist groups to coordinate and raise funds more easily 34 public health misinformation edit public health issues have become areas of misinformation within the public opinion field according to the national library of medicine misinformation can have negative effects in the real world such as amplifying controversy about vaccines and propagating unproven cancer treatments 35 medical misinformation has been relevant to changing public opinion in cases such as the hiv aids epidemic originally a myth was circulated that aids could be spread by touching people who were infected 36 this had implications for public opinion regarding aids policies as the misinformation around the illness led to support for restrictive policies for people infected with hiv 37 vaccines have also had health misinformation associated with it 38 according to the national library of medicine misinformation has led people to take household disinfectants such as hydroxychloroquine as they thought it would help to treat covid 19 39 the cdc performed a survey and found that out of 502 adults 39 of respondents performed unsafe activities to treat covid 19 40 relationship with public policy edit the most pervasive issue dividing theories of the opinion policy relation bears a striking resemblance to the problem of monism pluralism in the history of philosophy the controversy deals with the question of whether the structure of socio political action should be viewed as a more or less centralized process of acts and decisions by a class of key leaders representing integrated hierarchies of influence in society or whether it is more accurately envisaged as several sets of relatively autonomous opinion and influence groups interacting with representative decision makers in an official structure of differentiated governmental authority the former assumption interprets individual group and official action as part of a single system and reduces politics and governmental policies to a derivative of three basic analytical terms society culture and personality despite philosophical arguments regarding public opinion social scientists those in sociology political science economics and social psychology present compelling theories to describe how public opinion shapes public policy and find myriad effects of opinion on policy using various empirical research methods moreover researchers find that causal relationships likely run in both directions from opinion to policy and from policy to opinion on the one hand public opinion signals public preferences and potential voting behaviors to policymakers 41 42 this impact should be greater under more stable democratic institutions 43 it should be greatest in the realm of social policy because the public is highly motivated by potential goods and services they get from the state on the other hand social policy impacts public opinion the goods and services the public gets via social policy builds normative expectations that shape public opinion 44 45 furthermore social policy constitutes the largest share of state spending budgets making it an active and contentious political area 46 together these theories suggest that causal effects are part of a feedback loop between opinion and policy 47 48 49 using increasingly sophistica...