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to determine if some event or person is more or less likely to be historical these criteria are primarily though not exclusively used to assess the sayings and actions of jesus 87 88 in view of the skepticism produced in the mid twentieth century by form criticism concerning the historical reliability of the gospels the burden shifted in historical jesus studies from attempting to identify an authentic life of jesus to attempting to prove authenticity the criteria developed within this framework therefore are tools that provide arguments solely for authenticity not inauthenticity 89 by 1987 d polkow lists 25 separate criteria being used by scholars to test for historical authenticity including the criterion of historical plausibility 5 87 following the prompt of chris keith and anthony le donne concerns have been growing about the usefulness of the criteria of authenticity but numerous scholars are divided in that some wish to rebuild the criteria as well along with memory studies 90 james crossley has argued that e merging from under the rubble of the criteria we are left with an old fashioned view of interpretation argument and the combining of arguments for collective weight to make a general case 91 other scholars disagree and state that the criteria are meant to be used with caution and are simply tools for historical plausibility than certainty 92 nonetheless while the state of the criteria is hotly debated among scholars the criteria and its reasoning are still employed by even scholars who reject or diminish the criteria 93 indicating that authenticating criteria are inherent to historiography in general 94 furthermore a comparative study tested the methodology of jesus researchers and greco roman historians on how they assessed the trial of jesus and julius caesar crossing the rubicon 95 the study concluded that the criteria are used by both fields to test historical probability of events 95 general historians outside of biblical studies have noted that some of the same criteria existed before new testament form criticism even existed and that they have been in operation by general historians for more than a century 96 dissimilarity edit main article criterion of dissimilarity in 1901 the application of criteria of authenticity began with dissimilarity it was often applied unevenly with a preconceived goal 97 98 the criterion of dissimilarity or discontinuity says that if a particular saying can be plausibly accounted for as the words or teaching of some other source contemporary to jesus it is not thought to be genuine evidence of the historical jesus the son of man sayings are an example judaism had a son of man concept as indicated by texts like 1 enoch 46 2 48 2 5 10 52 4 62 5 9 69 28 29 and 4 ezra 13 3ff but there is no record of the jews ever applying it to jesus the son of man is jesus most common self designation in the gospels yet none of the new testament epistles use this expression nor is there any evidence that the disciples or the early church did the conclusion is that by the process of elimination of all other options it is likely historically accurate that jesus used this designation for himself 99 100 multiple attestation edit main article criterion of multiple attestation the criterion of multiple attestation or independent attestation sometimes also referred to as the cross sectional method is a type of source criticism first developed by f c burkitt in 1906 101 simply put the method looks for commonalities in multiple sources with the assumption that the more sources that report an event or saying the more likely that event or saying is historically accurate burkitt claimed he found 31 independent sayings in mark and q within synoptic gospel studies this was used to develop the four source hypothesis multiple sources lend support to some level of historicity new testament scholar gerd theissen says there is broad scholarly consensus that we can best find access to the historical jesus through the synoptic tradition 102 101 103 a second related theory is that of multiple forms developed by c h dodd it focuses on the sayings or deeds of jesus found in more than one literary form bible scholar andreas j köstenberger gives the example of jesus proclaiming the kingdom of god had arrived he says it is found in an aphorism mat 5 17 in parables mat 9 37 38 and mark 4 26 29 poetic sayings mat 13 16 17 and dialogues mat 12 24 28 and is therefore likely an authentic theme of jesus teaching 104 105 106 107 108 contextual credibility semitic language and palestinian environment edit main article criterion of contextual credibility further information language of the new testament jewish koine greek and historical background of the new testament a series of language based criteria have been developed since 1925 when the criterion of semitic language phenomena was first introduced 109 followed by and linked to the criterion of palestinian environment by scholars such as joachim jeremias 1947 110 jeremias s criterion of traces of aramaic evaluates a biblical saying based on the presence of possibly aramaic vocabulary or grammar while the similar criterion of the palestinian environment considers a saying authentic if it fits in the palestinian setting of jesus time 111 112 the linguistic criterion observers that the new testament was written in koine greek but contains a high number of words and phrases called semitisms a combination of poetic or vernacular koine greek with hebrew and aramaic influences 113 114 a semitism is the linguistic usage in the greek in a non greek fashion of an expression or construction typical of hebrew or aramaic in other words a semitism is greek in hebrew or aramaic style 115 116 the environmental criterion observers features mentioned in the sources that point to origin of the tradition in palestine 110 for example matthew begins with a hebrew gematria a method of interpreting hebrew by computing the numerical value of words in matthew 1 1 jesus is designated the son of david the son of abraham the numerical value of david s name in hebrew is 14 so this genealogy has 14 generations from abraham to david 14 from david to the babylonian exile and 14 from the exile to the christ matthew 1 17 117 such linguistic peculiarities tie new testament texts to jews of 1st century palestine 115 the linguistic and environmental criteria are treated separately by some scholars but taken together by others e g as the criterion of semitisms and palestinian background 118 119 john p meier 1991 defined a criterion of traces of aramaic and a criterion of palestinian environment noting they are closely connected and warning that they are best applied in the negative sense as the linguistic social and cultural environment of palestine did not suddenly change after the death of jesus and so traditions invented inside palestine in the first few decades after jesus s death may misleadingly appear contextually authentic 106 bart d ehrman 1999 combined them into the criterion of contextual credibility 120 this asserts that traditions are more likely to be reliable if they conform well to what is known of the historical and social situation of the time namely 1st century palestine 118 121 as an example ehrman cites the conversation between nicodemus and jesus in chapter 3 of the gospel of john their confusion is based on the multiple meanings of the greek word ανωθεν anothen again and from above but in 1st century palestine they would have spoken aramaic which does not have a word with the same double meaning therefore the conversation could not have taken place as narrated 120 embarrassment edit main article criterion of embarrassment the second quest introduced the criterion of embarrassment 5 the criterion of embarrassment is based on the assumption the early church would not have gone out of its way to create or falsify historical material that only embarrassed its author or weakened its position in arguments with opponents 122 as historian will durant explains despite the prejudices and theological preconceptions of the evangelists they record many incidents that mere inventors would have concealed the competition of the apostles for high places in the kingdom their flight after jesus arrest peter s denial the failure of christ to work miracles in galilee the references of some auditors to his possible insanity his early uncertainty as to his mission his confessions of ignorance as to the future his moments of bitterness his despairing cry on the cross 123 these and other possibly embarrassing events such as the discovery of the empty tomb by women jesus baptism by john and the crucifixion itself are seen by this criterion as lending credence to the supposition the gospels contain some history 124 125 126 the criterion of the crucifixion is related to the criterion of embarrassment in the first century roman empire only criminals were crucified the early church referred to death on the cross as a scandal it is therefore unlikely to have been invented by them 127 128 125 new testament scholar gerd theissen and theologian dagmar winter say one aspect of the criterion of embarrassment is resistance to tendencies of the tradition 128 it works on the assumption that what goes against the general tendencies of the early church is historical for example criticisms of jesus go against the tendency of the early church to worship him making it unlikely the early church community invented statements such as those accusing jesus of being in league with satan matthew 12 24 or being a glutton and drunkard matthew 11 19 theissen and winter sum this up with what can also be referred to as enemy attestation when friends and enemies alike refer to the same events those events are likely to be historical 129 coherence edit by the 1950s coherence was also included the criterion of coherence also called criterion of consistency or criterion of conformity can be used only when other material has been identified as authentic this criterion holds that a saying or action attributed to jesus may be accepted as authentic if it coheres with other sayings and actions already established as authentic while this criterion cannot be used alone it can broaden what scholars believe jesus said and did 130 122 131 for example jesus teaching in mark 12 18 27 concerning the resurrection of the dead coheres well with a saying of jesus in q on the same subject of the afterlife reported in matthew 8 11 12 luke 13 28 29 as well as other teachings of jesus on the same subject 132 other criteria from the third quest edit beyond the previous criteria of multiple attestation dissimilarity also called discontinuity context language and environment and embarrassment a number of other criteria have been developed through the third quest 5 111 primary among these are 111 112 the criterion of rejection and execution was developed in 1985 5 it is quite different from other criteria and does not directly point to an individual saying or act of jesus as authentic but focuses attention on the fact that jesus was rejected by the jews and executed by the romans and then asks what words and deeds would fit into this scenario 111 112 john p meier stated that this criterion draws attention that a jesus who did not challenge the authorities of his time would have been unlikely to have been crucified and thus helps evaluate the sayings of jesus in that context 112 the criterion of historical plausibility was introduced by gerd theissen in 1997 5 this principle analyzes the plausibility of an event in terms of components such as contextual plausibility and consequential plausibility i e the historical context needs to be suitable as well as the consequences 5 in recent research the criterion of plausibility has found favor among scholars over the criterion of dissimilarity and accounts that fit the historical context are viewed as more likely to be valid 3 133 the criterion of congruence also called cumulative circumstantial evidence is a special case of the older criterion of coherence 134 the criterion of coherence also called the criterion of consistency and conformity looks back at what has already been established as historical and tests if a new hypothesis is consistent and coherent with what is already known 111 thus this criterion is not simply applied to ancient texts as a star but looks back at the results of modern analysis and considers its coherence and consistency 112 the criterion of congruence lends support to a hypothesis if observations from other data suggest similar conclusions 134 a number of other proposed criteria are viewed as dubious and unreliable by third quest scholars 111 these include the criterion of the vividness of narration which suggested that a saying expressed in more vivid language than the rest of the surrounding text it may be an eyewitness declaration but the criterion is generally rejected by scholars 111 112 other methods edit methodological alternatives involving memory studies hermeneutics linguistics cultural studies and more have been put forth by various scholars as alternatives to the criteria 135 136 memory studies edit chris keith le donne and others c argue for a social memory approach which argues that memories are shaped by socially determined interpretative frameworks which are shaped by the needs of the present any gospel unit is shaped and interpreted by the ones who remember the distinction between authentic and inauthentic is therefore useless instead of searching for a historical jesus scholarship should investigate how the memories of jesus were shaped and how they were reshaped with the aim of cohesion and the self understanding identity of groups 73 rafael rodriguez states though not persuaded by revisionist reconstructions instead of using criteria to isolate historical data in a binary of authenticity of precise details memory studies provide a wider view to capture gist of a historical event e g baptism of jesus demonic possession since the sources only represent how jesus was remembered interpreted by early followers 137 anthony le donne elaborated on dunn s thesis basing his historiography squarely on dunn s thesis that the historical jesus is the memory of jesus recalled by the earliest disciples 76 according to le donne memories are fractured and not exact recalls of the past 76 le donne further argues that the remembrance of events is facilitated by relating it to a common story or type the type shapes how the memories are retained c q narrated this means the jesus tradition is not a theological invention of the early church but rather a tradition shaped and refracted through such memory type 76 according to chris keith there are two competing models for how to use the gospel tradition in order to approach the historical jesus a first model inspired by form criticism and still advocated today attempts to attain a historical jesus behind the interpretations of early christians a s...