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e present 2 6 race and non jews 3 impact 4 see also 5 notes 6 citations 7 sources 8 further reading toggle the table of contents racial conceptions of jewish identity in zionism 1 language español edit links article talk english read view source view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read view source view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia use of racial theories for and against zionism in the late 19th century amid attempts to apply science to notions of race some of the founders of zionism such as max nordau sought to reformulate conceptions of jewishness in terms of racial identity and the race science of the time they believed that this concept would allow them to build a new framework for collective jewish identity 1 and thought that biology might provide proof for the ethnonational myth of common descent from the biblical land of israel 2 3 countering antisemitic claims that jews were both aliens and a racially inferior people who needed to be segregated or expelled these zionists drew on and appropriated elements from various race theories 4 5 6 to argue that only a jewish national home could enable the physical regeneration of the jewish people and a renaissance of pride in their ancient cultural traditions 7 the contrasting assimilationist viewpoint was that jewishness consisted in an attachment to judaism as a religion and culture both the orthodox and liberal establishments for different reasons often rejected this idea 8 9 10 subsequently zionist and non zionist jews vigorously debated aspects of this proposition in terms of the merits or otherwise of diaspora life while zionism embarked on its project of social engineering in mandatory palestine ethnonationalist politics on the european continent strengthened and by the 1930s some german jews acting defensively asserted jewish collective rights by redefining jews as a race after nazism rose to power 11 the advent of world war ii led to the implementation of the holocaust s policies of genocidal ethnic cleansing which by war s end had utterly discredited race as the lethal product of pseudoscience with the establishment of israel in 1948 the ingathering of the exiles and the law of return the question of jewish origins and biological unity came to assume particular importance during early nation building conscious of this israeli medical researchers and geneticists were careful to avoid any language that might resonate with racial ideas themes of blood logic or race have nevertheless been described as a recurrent feature of modern jewish thought in both scholarship and popular belief 12 despite this many aspects of the role of race in the formation of zionist concepts of a jewish identity were rarely addressed until recently 13 questions of how political narratives impact the work of population genetics and its connection to race have a particular significance in jewish history and culture 14 genetic studies on the origins of modern jews have been criticized as being designed or interpreted in the framework of a zionist narrative and as an essentialist approach to biology 15 in a similar manner to criticism of the interpretation of archaeological science in the region 16 according to israeli historian of science nurit kirsh and israeli geneticist raphael falk the interpretation of the genetic data has been unconsciously influenced by zionism 17 falk wrote that every generation has witnessed efforts by both zionist and non zionist jews to seek a link between national and biological aspects of jewish identity 18 literature review though the question is undecided some trace the start of a biological interpretation of jewish origins back as far as the spanish inquisition 19 a tradition of thought and ethnography premised on a hierarchy of racial distinctions though in retrospect known to be a pseudoscience was deeply entrenched indeed ubiquitous among western scholars by the early twentieth century 20 it saturated thinking in medicine and anthropology but assumed particular prominence in the germanic sphere 21 as opposed to england where john efron writes jews as jews simply failed to arouse british scientific curiosity 22 a as participants in modernity jewish thinkers and scientists formed an integral part of the scientific world underwriting these theories the nazi holocaust totally discredited concepts of race and from 1945 onwards considerable efforts were made to disabuse the world of the prejudicial notion that jews constituted a race 23 at the same time the broader thrust and impact of this discredited world view long remained insufficiently analysed b arthur koestler whose 1976 book the thirteenth tribe drew jewish american criticism for advancing theories on khazar ancestry ethnic origins have figured as an indispensable basis for determining what groups belong to the jewish collective 23 admixture by conversion tended to be underplayed in traditional jewish historiography in contrast to speculations about descendant communities from the biblical ten lost tribes who in theory would belong to the jewish blood community c when arthur koestler s the thirteenth tribe 1976 propounded the thesis that the origins of the ashkenazi might be found in the dispersion of the turkic khazars the book encountered a mixed reception within the jewish american community which was increasingly adopting zionism narratives during this time period and a hostile reception from american zionists who condemned the work as a product of jewish self hatred though the book s genetic implications are not regarded as tenable this severity of critical dismissal according to elise burton reflected an inability or unwillingness to take cognisance of a tradition of a racializing logic in zionist discussions of a putative jewish biology d though as early as 1967 george mosse had alluded to the striking similarities between zionist discourse on race and those made by their völkisch german ethnonationalist antagonists 24 e the academic mainstream tended to treat it as a taboo 26 george mosse who alluded to similarities between the zionist discourse on race and that of their german ethnonationalist antagonists in 1983 the historian joachim doron 1923 1993 examined the tradition of acerbic attacks zionists once mounted against jews of the diaspora much of which concerned differing ways of interpreting jews as a nation race many aspects of the role of race in the formation of zionist concepts of a jewish identity were rarely addressed sidelined or deliberately suppressed until recent decades 13 f doron suggested four reasons for this silence firstly these scathing polemical recriminations by zionists against other jews the enemy within overlapped with anti semitic arguments about jews and recalling them would only play into the hands of modern anti semites secondly both holocaust survivors and veteran settlers had begun to feel nostalgic about the lost world of the shtetl whose idealization led them to ignore negative characterizations of life in the pale in the 19th 20th century jewish zionist tradition thirdly as a young nation forging a new jewish identity with ramifications for the postwar diaspora a vision emphasizing whatever was positive came to dominate jewish history in israel finally the country s growing political isolation encouraged a trend to ignore world opinion in ben gurion s words to disregard what the goyim say jewish issues that an earlier zionist press would have excoriated as scandalous came to be dismissed as just expressions of jewish self hatred 27 beginning in the 1990s this topical neglect has been gradually addressed in detail beginning with a german monograph by annegret kiefer in 1991 28 g and in english john efron s landmark study defenders of the race 1994 29 30 brief notices emerged occasionally hinting at gaps in the record mark gelber in an aside on his chapter on nathan birnbaum whose racialist ideas had a seminal impact on cultural zionism remarked in 2000 that the racialist orientation of birnbaum s student martin buber had been relativized or sometimes even suppressed in scholarly literature and other commentary about him 31 h 32 in the same year mitchell hart on the heels of his 1999 essay explored these themes in terms of social science in a book length study 33 34 many studies began to fill the lacuna by examining the racial thinking embedded in the national ideology constructed around jews in its formative period 24 by 2013 doron avraham noted that a number of studies had explored jews self racialization in relation to the fin de siècle period although later periods remained less researched 35 some of this scholarship made connections between earlier zionist understanding of race and more recent genetic debates in israel nurit kirsh wrote in 2004 that investigations into the biology of the jews had rarely been explored for two decades after the state s establishment and argued that zionist ideology had been so internalized by scientists that the myths remained as unconscious influences on their approach to the subject of population genetics i the following year a special issue of jewish history dedicated several articles to aspects of the topic of jews and racial classifications 36 37 38 39 and tudor parfitt published his study of the interrelation between genetics and jewish identity among the lemba and bene israel 40 the israel geneticist and historian of science raphael falk argued that explicit racial and eugenic notions linking jewish nationality and biology were particularly in evidence among zionist writers but also among non zionists and have continued though in a thinly disguised mode after the defeat of nazism to resurface in every generation since for him the utilisation of biological arguments as evidence for whatever social economic or political notion that has been put forward remains problematic 41 42 falk comments that he knows of no other example of an ethnic conflict where this effort to prove or disprove the biological belonging of modern jews to the historical land of israel played such a role j historian steven weitzman writes that postwar genetics worked to distance itself from race science for both scientific and ethical reasons weizmann documents the significant and profound differences between genetics and race science while noting intellectual similarities k he concludes that some insecurity about the ambiguities of jewish identity inflected by social psychological and political concerns runs through the centuries long scholarly quest for jewish origins even to the present the mystery continues to attract attention he says but cannot be solved by scholarship attempts to do so to ground an alternative creation myth in scholarship prove to be tendentious or deleterious 43 according to elise burton historians and anthropologists have critically examined how the structuring assumptions of jewish race science in early twentieth century europe and north america and their relationship to zionist nationalism reverberate within the genetic studies of jewish populations by israeli scientists from the 1950s to the present 44 genetic studies on the origins of modern jews have been criticized as being designed or interpreted in the framework of a zionist narrative as essentializing biology or both 15 in a similar manner to criticism of the interpretation of archaeological science in the region 16 according to kirsh and falk the interpretation of the genetic data has been unconsciously influenced by zionism and anti zionism 17 noah tamarkin assistant professor of anthropology and science and technology studies at cornell university in reviewing the literature writes 45 contemporary geneticists and their critics often consider similar questions and controversies such as those raised in pre 1980s studies based on blood groups and even earlier biometric studies undertaken by 19th and early 20th century eugenicists and their critics zionist and anti zionist politics significantly inform historical and contemporary jewish genetics literatures at times explicitly and more often implicitly in the questions that scholars ask such as the extent to which jews constitute a biological community and the extent to which jews throughout the world can trace their ancestry to the middle east history background traditional christian judaeophobia was tempered under the impact of the age of enlightenment as a succeeding period of jewish emancipation in western civil society took root in the 19th century many acculturated jewish communities l integrated into germanic society came to consider their jewishness in terms of their cultural and or religious heritage 46 coinciding with the emergence of darwinism as a biological science of man and the rise of scientific racism more broadly the emancipation period s incremental lowering of traditional socio cultural discrimination against and persecution of jews faced new challenges though there was no intrinsic connection between darwin s theories and antisemitism 47 the latter half of the 19th century witnessed the rise of a racial antisemitism wilhelm marr 1873 1879 eugen dühring 1881 for example which often had scientific pretensions 48 in the german cultural world in particular this retuning of nationalist völkisch thought 49 drew strength from the biologization of human differences in the form of theories of organic racial typologies by seeking an ostensible scientific support in social darwinism s theory of evolution as a struggle between species 46 jewish scholars and scientists were therefore forced to confront the new race science and in the words of todd endelman s ome disputed the stability and permanence of racial traits and the existence of pure races others internalized racial thinking and then unconsciously reworked and subverted its premises still others accepted the idea of racial differences but turned conventional stereotypes on their head 50 jewish scientists who espoused assimilation and accepted the broad parameters of the racial paradigm tended to rethink race in terms of lamarckism which allowed that environmental factors could modify an inherited genetic makeup zionist scientists contrariwise were often convinced that the supposed defects of the jewish body were a direct consequence of integration into other societies 51 and were drawn to an essentialist interpretation of race for the former race was a flexible reality amenable to improvement while the latter thought traits engendered by mendelian principles involved a more rigid scheme of biological determinism 52 for instance when the assimilationist joseph jacobs 53 anthropometric research i e phrenology suggested in the 1890s that jews were brachycephalic the p...