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ruction to the end of the 19th century while monographs by charles reagan wilson gaines foster w scott poole and bruce baker have offered new views of the southern lost cause 284 285 dating the end of the reconstruction era edit at the national level textbooks typically date the era from 1865 to 1877 foner s textbook of national history give me liberty is an example 286 his monograph reconstruction america s unfinished revolution 1863 1877 1988 focusing on the situation in the south covers 1863 to 1865 while 1877 is the usual date given for the end of reconstruction some historians such as orville vernon burton extend the era to the 1890s to include the imposition of segregation 287 1877 is also commonly used as a dividing point for two semester survey courses and two volume textbooks that aim to cover all of u s history 288 289 290 economic role of race edit economists and economic historians have different interpretations of the economic impact of race on the postwar southern economy in 1995 robert whaples took a random survey of 178 members of the economic history association who studied american history in all time periods he asked whether they wholly or partly accepted or rejected 40 propositions in the scholarly literature about american economic history the greatest difference between economics phds and history phds came in questions on competition and race for example the proposition originally put forward by robert higgs in the post bellum south economic competition among whites played an important part in protecting blacks from racial coercion was accepted in whole or part by 66 of the economists but by only 22 of the historians whaples says this highlights a recurring difference dividing historians and economists the economists have more faith in the power of the competitive market for example they see the competitive market as protecting disenfranchised blacks and are less likely to accept the idea that there was exploitation by merchant monopolists 291 reconstruction failures edit reconstruction is widely considered a failure though the reason for this is a matter of controversy the dunning school considers failure inevitable because it feels that taking the right to vote or hold office away from southern whites was a violation of republicanism a second school sees the reason for failure as northern republicans lack of effectiveness in guaranteeing political rights to blacks citation needed a third school blames the failure on not giving land to the freedmen so they could have their own economic base of power citation needed a fourth school sees the major reason for the failure of reconstruction as the states inability to suppress the violence of southern whites when they sought reversal for blacks gains etcheson 2009 points to the violence that crushed black aspirations and the abandonment by northern whites of southern republicans 292 etcheson writes that it is hard to see reconstruction as concluding in anything but failure adding w e b dubois captured that failure well when he wrote in black reconstruction in america 1935 the slave went free stood a brief moment in the sun then moved back again toward slavery 293 other historians emphasize the failure to fully incorporate southern unionists into the republican coalition derek w frisby points to reconstruction s failure to appreciate the challenges of southern unionism and incorporate these loyal southerners into a strategy that would positively affect the character of the peace 294 historian donald r shaffer maintains that the gains during reconstruction for african americans were not entirely extinguished the legalization of african american marriages and families and the independence of black churches from white denominations were a source of strength during the jim crow era reconstruction was not forgotten within the black community and it remained a source of inspiration the system of sharecropping granted blacks a considerable amount of freedom as compared to slavery 295 foner argues 126 what remains certain is that reconstruction failed and that for blacks its failure was a disaster whose magnitude cannot be obscured by the genuine accomplishments that did endure annette gordon reed describes the effects if reconstruction had not failed 296 mark summers argues that the failure question should be looked at from the viewpoint of the war goals 297 if we see reconstruction s purpose as making sure that the main goals of the war would be fulfilled of a union held together forever of a north and south able to work together of slavery extirpated and sectional rivalries confined of the permanent banishment of the fear of vaunting appeals to state sovereignty backed by armed force then reconstruction looks like what in that respect it was a lasting and unappreciated success in popular culture edit journalist joel chandler harris who wrote under the name joe harris for the atlanta constitution mostly after reconstruction tried to advance racial and sectional reconciliation in the late 19th century he supported henry w grady s vision of a new south during grady s time as editor from 1880 to 1889 harris wrote many editorials in which he encouraged southerners to accept the changed conditions along with some northern influences but he asserted his belief that change should proceed under white supremacy 298 in popular literature two early 20th century novels by thomas dixon jr the leopard s spots a romance of the white man s burden 1865 1900 1902 and the clansman a historical romance of the ku klux klan 1905 idealize white resistance to northern and black coercion hailing vigilante action by the ku klux klan 299 d w griffith adapted the clansman for the screen in his anti republican movie the birth of a nation 1915 it stimulated the formation of the 20th century version of the kkk many other authors romanticized the supposed benevolence of slavery and the elite world of the antebellum plantations in memoirs and histories which were published in the late 19th and early 20th centuries the united daughters of the confederacy promoted influential works which were written in these genres by women 300 of much more lasting impact was the story gone with the wind first in the form of the best selling 1936 novel which enabled its author margaret mitchell to win the pulitzer prize and an award winning hollywood blockbuster with the same title in 1939 in each case the second half of the story focuses on reconstruction in atlanta the book sold millions of copies nationwide the film is regularly re broadcast on television in 2018 it remained at the top of the list of highest grossing films adjusted in order to keep up with inflation the new georgia encyclopedia argues 301 politically the film offers a conservative view of georgia and the south in her novel despite her southern prejudices mitchell showed clear awareness of the shortcomings of her characters and their region the film is less analytical it portrays the story from a clearly old south point of view the south is presented as a great civilization the practice of slavery is never questioned and the plight of the freedmen after the civil war is implicitly blamed on their emancipation a series of scenes whose racism rivals that of d w griffith s film the birth of a nation 1915 mainly portrays reconstruction as a time when southern whites were victimized by freed slaves who themselves were exploited by northern carpetbaggers in education edit the dunning school dominated white scholarship about reconstruction during most of the 20th century black scholarship on the reconstruction era was mostly ignored until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s though the racist interpretations of the dunning school continue to this day 302 foner states for no other period of american history does so wide a gap exist between current scholarship and popular historical understanding which judging from references to reconstruction in recent newspaper articles films popular books and in public monuments across the country still bears the mark of the old dunning school 303 as reported in a january 2022 time magazine article 304 in social studies standards for 45 out of 50 states and the district of columbia discussion of reconstruction is partial or non existent according to historians who reviewed how the period is discussed in k 12 social studies standards for public schools nationwide in a report produced by the education nonprofit zinn education project the study s authors say they are concerned that american children will grow up to be uninformed about a critical period of history that helps explain why full racial equality remains unfulfilled today the zinn education project s report erasing the black freedom struggle how state standards fail to teach the truth about reconstruction 305 highlights the historical connections to reconstruction that surround us today and examines reconstruction s place in state social studies standards across the united states and the barriers to teaching effective reconstruction history according to a facing south article entitled the south s schools are failing to teach accurate reconstruction history 306 it is our hope that states and districts will adopt these guidelines for their own educational standards curricula and professional development the report states in so doing they will be better equipped to teach students the true history of reconstruction help students understand its significance and make connections to the present day and they will empower teachers to educate their students and themselves about ongoing reconstruction scholarship see also edit african american founding fathers of the united states reconstruction era national monument remembering reconstruction struggles over the meaning of america s most turbulent era freedmen s town references edit notes edit all blacks would be counted in 1870 whether or not they were citizens georgia had a republican governor and legislature but the republican hegemony was tenuous at best and democrats continued to win presidential elections there see jackson ed pou charles this day in georgia history march 28 today in georgia history archived from the original on january 9 2009 cf rufus bullock although grant and attorney general amos t akerman set up a strong legal system to protect african americans the department of justice did not set up a permanent civil rights division until the civil rights act of 1957 283 citations edit the first vote by william waud archived february 2 2014 at the wayback machine harpers weekly nov 16 1867 history culture reconstruction era national historical park u s national park service february 24 2023 rodrigue john c 2001 reconstruction in the cane fields from slavery to free labor in louisiana s sugar parishes 1862 1880 baton rouge louisiana louisiana state university press p 168 isbn 978 0 8071 5263 8 lynn samara thorbecke catherine september 27 2020 what america owes how reparations would look and who would pay abc news archived from the original on february 25 2021 retrieved february 24 2021 guelzo 2018 pp 11 12 foner 2019 p 198 parfait 2009 pp 440 441 441n1 foner 1988 p xxv stazak luke masur kate williams heather andrea downs gregory p glymph thavolia hahn steven foner eric january 2015 eric foner s reconstruction at twenty five the journal of the gilded age and progressive era 14 1 cambridge england cambridge university press 13 27 doi 10 1017 s1537781414000516 jstor 43903055 s2cid 162391933 archived from the original on january 18 2022 retrieved january 18 2022 reconstruction is almost literally a landmark it defines the territory 1 2 harlow luke e march 2017 the future of reconstruction studies journal of the civil war era 7 1 chapel hill north carolina university of north carolina press 3 6 doi 10 1353 cwe 2017 0001 issn 2159 9807 jstor 26070478 s2cid 164628161 archived from the original on january 18 2022 retrieved january 18 2022 downs gregory masur kate 2017 the reconstruction era 1861 1900 pdf national park service the national historic landmarks program pp 3 4 91 cite book cs1 maint publisher location link nov 7 1861 the port royal experiment initiated zinn education project retrieved january 24 2024 reconstruction era national historical park national park service history electronic library archive retrieved january 24 2024 1 2 brundage fitzhugh march 2017 reconstruction in the south journal of the civil war era 7 1 chapel hill north carolina university of north carolina press doi 10 1353 cwe 2017 0002 s2cid 159753820 archived from the original on january 18 2022 retrieved january 18 2022 foner 1988 p 582 richardson 2017 pp 12 18 19 sinha 2024 pp xvii 5 425 sinha 2024 pp 5 6 1 2 lincoln abraham october 18 1953 collected works of abraham lincoln volume 4 mar 5 1860 oct 24 1861 dead link transcript of the proclamation national archives october 6 2015 1 2 jones 2010 p 72 1 2 hunter 1997 pp 21 73 downs 2012 p 41 1 2 goldin claudia d lewis frank d june 1975 the economic cost of the american civil war estimates and implications pdf the journal of economic history 35 2 cambridge england cambridge university press 299 326 doi 10 1017 s0022050700075070 jstor 2119410 s2cid 18760067 archived from the original pdf on april 12 2019 blight david w 2001 race and reunion the civil war in american memory cambridge mass belknap press of harvard university press isbn 9780674022096 1 2 paskoff paul f 2008 measures of war a quantitative examination of the civil war s destructiveness in the confederacy civil war history 54 1 35 62 doi 10 1353 cwh 2008 0007 1 2 mcpherson 1992 p 38 hesseltine william b 1936 a history of the south 1607 1936 new york prentice hall pp 573 574 oclc 477679 via archive org ezell john samuel 1963 the south since 1865 pp 27 28 lash jeffrey n 1993 civil war irony confederate commanders and the destruction of southern railways prologue quarterly of the national archives 25 1 35 47 ransom roger l february 1 2010 the economics of the civil war economic history services archived from the original on december 13 2011 retrieved march 7 2010 direct costs for the confederacy are based on the value of the dollar in 1860 alexander thomas b august 1961 persistent whiggery in the confederate south 1860 1877 journal of southern history 27 3 305 329 doi 10 2307 2205211 jstor 2205211 trelease allen w august 1976 republican reconstruction in north carolina a roll call analysis of the state house of representatives 1866 1870 journal of southern history 42 3 319 344 doi 10 2307 2207155 jstor 2207155 1 2 3 foner eric winter 2009 if lincoln hadn t died american heritage magazine 58 6 archived from the original on june 16 2012 retrieved july 26 2010 1 2 3 harris 1997 p page needed simpson 2009 p page needed sherman s field order no 15 new georgia encyclopedia archived from the original on december 12 2022 donald baker holt 2001 ch 26 the second inaugural address the atlantic monthly vol 284 no 3 sept...