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the (404), and (204), was (90), ming (71), yuan (70), his (61), dynasty (56), from (53), red (52), zhu (52), 1988 (40), with (39), temür (39), zhang (36), edit (33), #emperor (30), turban (29), mongol (29), china (29), mote (29), köke (27), were (25), temur (25), #rebellion (24), had (24), han (22), for (22), turbans (22), history (21), chen (21), who (20), forces (20), army (20), rebellions (19), chinese (19), them (19), chaghan (19), court (18), against (17), yuanzhang (17), but (17), that (17), 1368 (16), battle (15), under (14), military (14), government (14), song (14), northern (14), 978 (14), isbn (14), shicheng (14), mongols (13), people (13), died (13), when (13), him (13), capital (13), war (12), river (12), captured (12), other (11), lin (11), cambridge (11), also (11), time (11), empire (10), southern (10), goryeo (10), fang (10), which (10), after (10), took (10), fled (10), rebels (10), rebel (10), toqto (10), 1351 (10), liu (10), unknown (10), great (9), lake (9), 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ilitary leaders and civilians succumbed to zhu s forces he gave them honorable burials and established shrines in their memory 25 zhu insisted that he was not a rebel and he attempted to justify his conquest of the other rebel warlords by claiming that he was a yuan subject divinely appointed to restore order by crushing rebels most chinese elites did not view the yuan s mongol ethnicity as grounds to resist or reject it zhu emphasized that he was not conquering territory from the yuan dynasty but rather from the rebel warlords he used this line of argument to attempt to persuade yuan loyalists to join his cause 26 zhu progressively developed his following into a working state zhu personally traveled to regions that had been conquered to survey problems and actively recruited scholars and officials whom he invited to dine with him in his headquarters in march 1358 he assigned kang maocai a former yuan official who had surrendered to the superintendency of the office for hydraulic works to repair dikes and embankments in 1360 he established bureaus to tax wine vinegar and salt even though he did not control the primary salt producing regions to the east in 1361 he began minting copper coins and by 1363 38 million coins were being produced in one year in 1362 custom offices were set up to collect taxes on traditional and commercial goods 27 emperor edit in 1363 zhang shicheng attacked the song court in anfeng zhu personally led his army to defend them against zhang and while liu futong was killed zhu managed to save han lin er whom he moved to chuzhou where the song court continued to exist in safety in the same year zhu won the battle of lake poyang against his rival chen youliang and proceeded to eliminate zhang shicheng and fang guozhen he spent most of 1364 and 1365 consolidating the territory he absorbed from his victory over zhang 28 zhu continued to use the song s reign period as his official calendar until han lin er drowned while crossing the changjiang in january 1367 possibly by design calling to overthrow the barbarians and restore the chinese zhu gained popular support 29 a calendar called that of the great ming dynasty beginning on 20 january 1368 was promulgated on 12 january 1368 zhu yuanzhang proclaimed himself emperor hongwu emperor of the ming dynasty radiant dynasty in yingtian 30 on 15 august 1368 the ming general xu da led an army north from kaifeng a defending army was defeated and tongzhou an intermediate city on the way to khanbaliq was captured on 10 september the yuan emperor toghon temür fled to shangdu khanbaliq fell to the ming on 14 september ending the rule of the yuan dynasty the city was renamed beiping pacified north 31 shangdu was taken by the ming general chang yuchun on 20 july 1369 forcing toghon temür to flee further north to karakorum 32 china proper was once again under ethnic han rule yuan forces edit toqto a edit toqto a was the primary decision maker behind the yuan throne starting in 1340 after taking power in a coup supported by the emperor toghon temür as chancellor he supported confucian forms of government and sought to stabilize the realm through vigorous government action one of his efforts in this endeavor was to repair and extend the grand canal so that the capital khanbaliq could be securely supplied with grain grown in the changjiang delta the project s failure in addition to a slew of natural disasters drew harsh criticism from his detractors leading to his resignation in june 1344 in the summer of 1344 the yellow river shifted its course causing droughts in the huai river valley toqto a s successor berke bukha had no answer to the crisis which was exacerbated by the coastal rebellion of fang guozhen whose fleet interdicted most of the grain shipments headed for the capital in august 1349 toqto a returned to power with the support of the emperor in april 1351 toqto a tried once again to tame the yellow river and grand canal through the mass mobilization of rural farmers leading to the red turban rebellion 33 after initial rebel victories the yuan armies were able to rally and suppress most of the red turbans by 1353 in october 1353 toqto a personally recovered xuzhou forcing the rebels peng da and zhao junyong to flee to haozhou 34 toqto a was dismissed in january 1355 due to court intrigue while he was successfully campaigning against zhang shicheng after his removal the offensive against zhang fell apart and the yuan court lost the last vestige of control it held over its own military forces 35 36 chaghan temur edit chaghan temur was a fourth generation descendant of a naiman clan that had settled in shenqiu on the eastern border of henan chaghan temur s great grandfather assisted the mongol conquest of china in the 13th century although originally turkic by the time of the red turban rebellions chaghan temur s lineage more closely aligned with both mongol and chinese culture chaghan temur once sat the imperial examinations and sometimes used the surname li in the late 1340s chaghan temur built a military force to protect his locality from the rebels starting in 1352 he won a string of victories against the red turbans and for a time in 1358 and 1359 based his operations in kaifeng by the end of the 1350s chaghan temur was the most powerful regional leader under the mongols service 36 chaghan temur s rival bolad temür the commander of shanxi refused to aid him bolad temur s efforts to overthrow chaghan temur and destroy köke temür paralyzed the court until his death in 1365 as a result chaghan temur ignored orders from the court and moved troops of his own will chaghan temur was assassinated in 1362 by tian feng and wang shicheng two former yuan generals who then fled to join the rebels 37 köke temür edit köke temür originally named wang baobao was the adopted son and nephew of chaghan temur through his sister wang baobao received the name köke temür from toghon temür in 1361 when he delivered a shipment of grain to the capital he succeeded his adoptive father when he died in 1362 upon his father s death köke temür was tasked with retaking shandong from the rebels he besieged the rebel base at yidu and after several months brought it down by tunneling under the walls he captured the assassins of chaghan temur tian feng and wang shicheng and sacrificed them to his father s spirit meanwhile due to bolad temur s machinations at court to remove crown prince ayushiridara köke temür remained estranged from court bolad temur and köke temür engaged in open warfare in shanxi which turned in köke temür s favor in 1363 bolad temur fled to the capital and seized control of it himself in 1364 bolad temur was assassinated in august 1365 after which köke temür escorted ayushiridara back to the capital where he remained for some time before returning to henan 38 köke temür went to war with li siqi zhang liangbi törebeg and kong xing the latter three being former associates of bolad 39 the emperor ordered köke temür to ignore them and defend the north from the ming dynasty but köke temür ignored his orders in february 1368 köke temür was dismissed from office and the other warlords ordered to crush him köke temür won the subsequent battles and remained the strongest warlord in the north köke temür came into conflict with the ming anyways and was defeated in battle on 26 april khanbaliq fell to the ming on 20 september the yuan emperor fled to köke temür who took his remaining forces and retreated into mongolia 40 the other warlords in the northwest refused to cooperate with köke temür even as they fell one by one to the ming on 3 may ming forces led by xu da found köke temür in eastern gansu the mongol forces were more numerous than anticipated so the ming troops took up a defensive position behind a stream köke temür attacked and outflanked the southwestern wing of the ming army very nearly routing them however the ming army managed to rally and counterattacked successfully the next day destroying the mongols despite his losses köke temür escaped total destruction and remained active in the desert meanwhile toghon temür died at yingchang on 23 may 1370 while his son biligtü khan ayushiridara fled further into mongolia ayushiridara s son maidarbal and 5 000 mongol warriors were captured by the ming 41 in 1372 an anti mongol army 150 000 strong was assembled under xu da li wenzhong and feng sheng xu da marched across the gobi desert in search of köke temür on 23 april a ming division caught a part of the mongol army by the tuul river and defeated it causing köke temür to avoid combat for the next month after marching fruitlessly in search of the mongols the ming army was defeated in an engagement on 7 june xu da took the remaining survivors and retreated from mongolia in early july li wenzhong encountered another mongol force under manzi kharajang by the tuul river and pursued them to the orkhon river the mongols turned to face them and counterattacked with unexpected force causing the ming army to take the defensive position the ming soldiers slaughtered their livestock and used their corpses as a line of defense the mongols withdrew and li was able to retreat feng sheng successfully cleared the path westward to dunhuang and retook the hexi corridor for the ming 42 in november 1373 köke temür tried to take datong he suffered a disastrous defeat against xu da who force marched his army through a snowstorm to attack the mongol forces on 29 november köke temür died in september 1375 at khara nokhai northwest of karakorum 43 li siqi edit li siqi was a friend of chaghan temur who participated in the early military campaigns of the latter against the red turbans by the end of the 1350s li had become the dominant local power in shaanxi 36 after chaghan temur s death li refused to acknowledge köke temür as chaghan temur s successor and went to war with him 39 li surrendered to the ming dynasty on 21 may 1369 32 chen youding edit chen youding was born to an illiterate farmer s family in fuzhou orphaned at an early age he joined the military in the 1350s and was given charge of a police detachment however his military capabilities far outstripped his station and he became chief of the provincial government within 10 years he ruled with an iron hand which drove many of his subordinates to defect when captured by zhu yuanzhang in 1368 chen continued to show belligerence bellowing at the ming emperor the state is demolished and my family is gone i shall die what more is there to talk about 44 he and his son were executed 44 at the end of the yuan bandits arose in all places among the common people volunteer forces were formed to protect village and locality those who called themselves commanders of such forces were too numerous to count the yuan government granted them official ranks and titles at the drop of a hat thereafter some would go off to become bandits others served the yuan cause but without resolve chen youding and his son however died for righteousness people of the time praised them for that consummation of their principles 45 history of ming he zhen edit he zhen was an orphan who nonetheless received an education in both brush and sword he held office in government briefly before leading a local defense corps he succeeded in recapturing a local prefectural city from bandits and was rewarded with office in the prefecture in 1363 he led provincial armies to recapture guangzhou from pirates he became head of the provincial government in 1366 when the ming armies approached in 1368 he readily gave up his position and surrendered after an interview with zhu yuanzhang in nanjing he was awarded with honors and posts in the provincial government he zhen retired at the age of 65 in 1387 and was made hereditary earl 46 basalawarmi edit basalawarmi the prince of liang and head of government in yunnan committed suicide when the region was conquered by the ming dynasty in 1382 yunnan played no major role in the events of the 1350s and 1360s 46 naghachu edit naghachu was a mongol leader captured by zhu yuanzhang in 1355 he was released in the hope of creating good will with the mongols but he left to create an independent mongol military establishment in liaodong he remained a constant source of trouble until he was defeated in 1387 naghachu was granted a marquisate and died on 31 august 1388 probably from alcohol abuse 46 47 mass relocations edit following the victory zhu yuanzhang ordered mass relocations across china people from shanxi were deported into other provinces in northern china including hebei henan and shandong which had been devastated by plague and famine 48 49 50 51 52 zhu yuanzhang moved people from shandong guangdong hebei shanxi and lake taihu to settle in his hometown of fengyang around 500 000 people in 1367 guizhou and yunnan were colonized by soldiers from anhui suzhou and shanghai from nanjing numbering 100 000 sichuan was resettled by people from hubei and hunan hubei and hunan were resettled by people from jiangxi and henan shandong beijing hezhou and chuzhou were resettled by people from shanxi and western zhejiang while northern henan and hebei was resettled by people from shanxi 53 the migration has been remembered in legends and novels 54 fengyang was resettled by people from southern china 55 and jiangnan 56 see also edit ispah rebellion battle of lake poyang ming mong mao war ming campaign against the uriankhai battle of buir lake jingnan campaign battle of kherlen yongle emperor s northern campaigns references edit mote 1988 p 16 mote 1988 p 12 mote 1988 pp 13 14 mote 1988 p 26 robinson 2009 p 134 yuan dynasty ancient china dynasties para 3 brook timothy 1999 the confusions of pleasure commerce and culture in ming china illustrated reprint ed university of california press p 18 isbn 978 0520221543 sussman george d 2011 was the black death in india and china bulletin of the history of medicine 85 3 cuny la guardia community college 319 355 doi 10 1353 bhm 2011 0054 pmid 22080795 s2cid 41772477 dreyer 1988 p 58 mote 1988 pp 37 38 mote 1988 p 39 1 2 mote 1988 pp 39 40 mote 1988 p 43 robinson 2009 pp 147 159 mote 1988 pp 41 42 rowe william crimson rain seven centuries of violence in a chinese county 2006 p 53 mote 1988 pp 30 35 mote 1988 pp 34 35 mote 1988 pp 44 45 tsai shih shan henry 2011 perpetual happiness the ming emperor yongle university of washington press pp 22 64 isbn 978 0295800226 adshead s a m 2016 china in world history illustrated ed springer p 175 isbn 978 1349237852 china in world history 3rd illustrated ed springer 2016 p 175 isbn 978 1349624096 mote 1988 pp 46 47 mote 1988 p 49 mote 1988 pp 47 51 david m robinson 2019 in the shadow of the mongol empire ming china and eurasia cambridge university press pp 144 146 isbn 978 1108682794 mote 1988 p 54 dreyer 1988 p 89 chan hok lam 2008 the song dynasty legacy symbolism and legitimation from han liner to zhu yuanzhang of the ming dynasty harvard journal of asiatic studies 68 1 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