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king lots and highways absorbs more radiative energy than other colors capturing significant amounts of energy which are partitioned primarily as sensible heat the geometry of urban buildings comes into play as well as tall buildings provide large surfaces that both absorb solar radiation and reflect it onto other absorbent surfaces due to a reduced sky view factor which accounts for the amount of surface area facing the sky they are less effective at radiating heat back into the atmosphere at night these tall buildings also block the wind which limits convective cooling 36 these factors combined with the heat generated from vehicles air conditioners and industry ensure that cities create absorb and hold heat very effectively social factors for heat vulnerability edit the physical causes of heat waves and droughts and the exacerbation of the uhi effect are only part of the equation in terms of fatalities social factors play a role as well statistically senior citizens represent the majority of heat and cold related deaths 37 within urban areas elderly individuals commonly experience comorbidity chronic illness and drug interactions that impair their body s ability to thermoregulate increasing their heat vulnerability 38 this increased heat related mortality among the elderly population is associated with social isolation common in urban environments 39 in rural areas seniors are more likely to live with family or in care homes whereas in cities they are often concentrated in subsidized apartment buildings and in many cases have little to no contact with the outside world 40 despite the perception of heat older adults in urban environments were unlikely to use air conditioning even when owning the technology 41 this combination of factors leads to thousands of tragic deaths every season and the incidence is increasing each year 42 gender combined with age has been shown to contribute to risk for heat related morbidity and mortality poverty among older women above the age of sixty five and living in urban environments limits access to energy use cooling resources or air conditioning increasing the heat related health risk among this population 43 44 although elderly populations are uniquely vulnerable to heat related health risks children also possess increased heat related health risk because they rely upon caregivers for protection 45 beyond age other social factors including race and socioeconomic status impact heat vulnerability specifically low income communities and communities of color have higher rates of heat related mortality in urban metropolitan regions because of structural inequities that limit access to healthcare or climate adaptive resources 43 low income urban communities further experience greater heat vulnerability due to the building dense built environment and minimal vegetation that increase heat exposure combined with elevated human activity traffic congestion and energy use that increase heat emissions in these areas 46 communities that lack access to walkable public cooling centers such as malls grocery stores or other public buildings experience greater heat related mortality 47 reduced educational attainment which is commonly linked to lower socioeconomic status is positively associated with increased heat vulnerability 43 occupation also impacts vulnerability to heat related illness work involving outdoor labor agriculture or in door confined spaces such as kitchen work were associated with greater risk compared to other often higher wage occupations 48 adapting for heat and drought resilience edit greening reflecting and whitening urban spaces edit an aerial view of delhi india where urban forests are being developed to improve the weather resistance and climate resilience of the city people kayaking down a street in mid city new orleans following flooding in 2019 greening urban spaces is among the most frequently mentioned strategies to address heat effects the idea is to increase the amount of natural cover within the city this cover can be made up of grasses bushes trees vines water rock gardens any natural material covering as much surface as possible with greenery will both reduce the total quantity of thermally absorbent artificial material and by creating shade will reduce the amount of light and heat that reaches the concrete and asphalt that cannot be replaced by greenery 49 trees are among the most effective greening tool within urban environments because of their coverage footprint ratio trees require a very small physical area for planting but when mature they provide a much larger coverage area trees absorb solar energy for photosynthesis improving air quality and mitigating global warming reducing the amount of energy being trapped and held within artificial surfaces and also cast much needed shade on the city and its inhabitants shade itself does not lower the ambient air temperature but it greatly reduces the perceived temperature and comfort of those seeking its refuge 50 an increasingly popular method of preventing the urban heat island uhi is to increase the albedo light reflectiveness this can be done by using reflective paints or materials where appropriate or white and light colored paints glazing can also be added to windows to reduce the amount of heat that buildings or roofs generate and store 51 green roofs also help reduce the urban heat island effect and improve the resilience to urban flooding restoring ponds and lakes and other types of urban open water can also help as shown by beijing china s dragon shaped lake 52 de paving urban footpaths and roads has also been found to be effective in urban flood control and may be a more cost efficient approach social strategies edit there are various strategies to increase the resilience of those most vulnerable to urban heat waves primarily socially isolated seniors but also young children especially those facing abject poverty or living in informal housing people with underlying health problems disabled people and the homeless accurate and early prediction of heat waves is of fundamental importance as it gives time for the government to issue extreme heat alerts urban areas must prepare and be ready to implement heat wave emergency response initiatives seasonal campaigns aimed to educate the public on the risks associated with heat waves will help prepare the broad community but in response to impending heat events more direct action is required 53 local government must quickly communicate with the groups and institutions that work with heat vulnerable populations cooling centers should be opened in libraries community centers and government buildings these centers ensure free access to air conditioning and water in partnership with government and non government social services paramedics police firefighters nurses and volunteers the above mentioned groups working with vulnerable populations should carry out regular door to door visits during these extreme heat scenarios these visits should provide risk assessment advice bottled water for areas without potable tap water and the offer of free transportation to local cooling centers 54 food and water supplies edit see also water scarcity and effects of climate change on agriculture heat waves and droughts can cause massive damage to agricultural areas vital to providing food staples to urban populations reservoirs and aquifers quickly dry up due to increased demand on water for drinking industrial and agricultural purposes the result can be food shortages and price spikes and increasingly shortages of drinking water as observed with increasing severity seasonally in china 55 and throughout most of the developing world 56 from an agricultural standpoint farmers can be encouraged to plant more heat and drought resistant crops agricultural practices can also be modified to higher levels of hydrological efficiency reservoirs should be expanded and new reservoirs and water towers should be constructed in areas facing critical shortages 57 grander schemes of damming and redirecting rivers should also be considered if possible for saltwater coastal cities desalination plants provide a possible solution to water shortages infrastructure improvements may also enhance resilience as in many areas aging pipelines result in leakage and possible contamination of drinking water in kenya s major cities nairobi and mombasa between 40 and 50 of drinking water is lost through leakage 58 in such cases replacements and repairs are clearly needed flooding edit flooding either from weather events rising sea levels or infrastructure failures are a major cause of death disease and economic losses throughout the world climate change and rapidly expanding urban settlements are two factors that increase occurrence and severity of urban flooding especially in the developing world 59 60 61 storm surges can affect coastal cities and are caused by low pressure weather systems like cyclones and hurricanes 62 flash floods and river floods can affect any city within a floodplain or with inadequate drainage infrastructure these can be caused by large quantities of rain or heavy rapid snow melt with all forms of flooding cities are more vulnerable because of the large quantity of paved and concrete surfaces these impermeable surfaces cause massive amounts of runoff that can quickly overwhelm the limited infrastructure of storm drains flood canals and intentional floodplains many cities in the developing world simply have no infrastructure whatsoever to redirect floodwaters 63 around the world floods kill thousands of people every year and are responsible for billions of dollars in damages and economic losses 64 in cities with poor or absent drainage infrastructure flooding can also lead to the contamination of drinking water sources aquifers wells inland waterways with salt water chemical pollution and most frequently viral and bacterial contaminants 65 flooding much like heat waves and droughts can also wreak havoc on agricultural areas quickly destroying large amounts of crops flood flow in urban environment edit the flood flow in urbanized areas constitutes a hazard to population and infrastructure some recent catastrophes included the inundations of vaison la romaine france in 1992 nîmes france in 1998 new orleans usa in 2005 and the flooding in rockhampton bundaberg and brisbane in queensland australia during the summer of 2010 2011 flood flows in urban environments have been studied only relatively recently despite many centuries of flood events 63 several studies looked into the flow patterns and redistribution in streets during storm events and the implication in terms of flood modelling 66 some research considered the criteria for safe evacuation of individuals in flooded areas 67 but some recent field measurements during the 2010 2011 queensland floods showed that any criterion solely based upon the flow velocity water depth or specific momentum cannot fully account for all the hazards due to flooding 63 as they do not take into account risks associated with large debris entrained by the flow 67 adapting for flood resilience edit urban greening edit replacing as much non porous surface as possible with greenery will allow the ground and plants to help absorb excess water 68 green roofs are gaining popularity they vary from very thin layers of soil or rockwool supporting a variety of low or no maintenance mosses or sedum species to large deep intensive roof gardens capable of supporting large plants and trees but requiring regular maintenance and significant structural support 69 the deeper the soil the more rainwater it can absorb and therefore the more potential floodwater it can prevent from reaching the ground one of the best strategies if possible is to simply create enough space for the excess water by expanding areas of parkland in or adjacent to the zone where flooding is most likely to occur excess water is diverted into these areas when necessary as in cardiff wales around the new millennium stadium and at the main olympic site in beijing china 70 52 floodplain clearance is another greening strategy that involves removing structures and pavement built on floodplains and returning the area to its natural habitat which is capable of absorbing massive quantities of water that otherwise would have flooded the built up urban area 65 flood water control edit levees and other flood barriers are indispensable for cities on floodplains or along rivers and coasts in areas with lower financial and engineering capital there are cheaper and simpler options for flood barriers uk engineers are currently conducting field tests of a new technology called the seloc self erecting low cost barrier the barrier itself lies flat on the ground and as the water rises the seloc floats up with its top edge rising with the water level a restraint holds the barrier in the vertical position this simple inexpensive flood barrier has great potential for increasing urban resilience to flood events 70 and shows significant promise for developing nations with its low cost and simple fool proof design the creation or expansion of flood canals and or drainage basins can help direct excess water away from critical areas 71 and the utilization of innovative porous paving materials on city streets and car parks allow for the absorption and filtration of excess water 51 during the january 2011 flood of the brisbane river australia some unique field measurements about the peak of the flood showed very substantial sediment fluxes in the brisbane river flood plain consistent with the murky appearance of floodwaters 72 73 structural resilience edit in most developed nations all new developments are assessed for flood risks the aim is to ensure flood risk is taken into account in all stages of the planning process to avoid inappropriate development in areas of high risk when development is required in areas of high risk structures should be built to flood resistant standards and living or working areas should be raised well above the worst case scenario flood levels for existing structures in high risk areas funding should be allocated to remediation for example raising electrical wiring sockets so any water that enters the home can not reach the electrics other solutions are to raise structures to appropriate heights 74 or make them floating 75 as a last resort considerations should be made to relocate or rebuild structures on higher ground a house in mexico beach florida which survived hurricane michael is an example of a house built to survive tidal surge 76 the pre incan uru people of lake titicaca in peru have lived on floating islands made of reeds for hundreds of years the practice began as an innovative form of protection from competition for land by various groups and it continues to support the uru homeland the manual technique is used to build homes resting on hand made islands 77 all from simple reeds from the toto...