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ds macro level encompassing overall musical architecture or form roughly corresponds to moravcsik s very long division while his meso level the level of divisions of form including movements sections phrases taking seconds or minutes is likewise similar to moravcsik s long category roads sound object 36 a basic unit of musical structure and a generalization of note xenakis mini structural time scale fraction of a second to several seconds and his microsound see granular synthesis down to the threshold of audible perception thousandths to millionths of seconds are similarly comparable to moravcsik s short and supershort levels of duration rhythm tempo interaction edit one difficulty in defining rhythm is the dependence of its perception on tempo and conversely the dependence of tempo perception on rhythm furthermore the rhythm tempo interaction is context dependent as explained by andranik tangian using an example of the leading rhythm of promenade from moussorgsky s pictures at an exhibition 37 38 this rhythm is perceived as it is rather than as the first three events repeated at a double tempo denoted as r012 repeat from 0 one time twice faster r012 however the motive with this rhythm in the moussorgsky s piece is rather perceived as a repeat r012 this context dependent perception of rhythm is explained by the principle of correlative perception according to which data are perceived in the simplest way from kolmogorov s complexity theory this means a representation of the data that minimizes the amount of memory the example considered suggests two alternative representations of the same rhythm as it is and as the rhythm tempo interaction a two level representation in terms of a generative rhythmic pattern and a tempo curve table 1 displays these possibilities both with and without pitch assuming that one duration requires one byte of information one byte is needed for the pitch of one tone and invoking the repeat algorithm with its parameters r012 takes four bytes as shown in the bottom row of the table the rhythm without pitch requires fewer bytes if it is perceived as it is without repetitions and tempo leaps on the contrary its melodic version requires fewer bytes if the rhythm is perceived as being repeated at a double tempo complexity of representation of time events rhythm only rhythm with pitch complete coding coding as repeat complete coding coding as repeat r012 r012 complexity of rhythmic pattern 6 bytes 3 bytes 12 bytes 6 bytes complexity of its transformation 0 bytes 4 bytes 0 bytes 4 bytes total complexity 6 bytes 7 bytes 12 bytes 10 bytes thus the loop of interdependence of rhythm and tempo is overcome due to the simplicity criterion which optimally distributes the complexity of perception between rhythm and tempo in the above example the repetition is recognized because of additional repetition of the melodic contour which results in a redundancy of the musical structure making the recognition of the rhythmic pattern robust under tempo deviations generally speaking the more redundant the musical support of a rhythmic pattern the better its recognizability under augmentations and diminutions that is its distortions are perceived as tempo variations rather than rhythmic changes by taking into account melodic context homogeneity of accompaniment harmonic pulsation and other cues the range of admissible tempo deviations can be extended further yet still not preventing musically normal perception for example skrjabin s own performance of his poem op 32 no 1 transcribed from a piano roll recording contains tempo deviations within 19 119 a span of 5 5 times 39 such tempo deviations are strictly prohibited for example in bulgarian or turkish music based on so called additive rhythms with complex duration ratios which can also be explained by the principle of correlativity of perception if a rhythm is not structurally redundant then even minor tempo deviations are not perceived as accelerando or ritardando but rather given an impression of a change in rhythm which implies an inadequate perception of musical meaning 40 metric structure edit further information metre music bar music and metre poetry notation of a clave rhythm pattern each cell of the grid corresponds to a fixed duration of time with a resolution fine enough to capture the timing of the pattern which may be counted as two bars of four beats in divisive metrical or symmetrical rhythm each beat divided into two cells the first bar of the pattern may also usefully be counted additively in measured or asymmetrical rhythm as 3 3 2 the study of rhythm stress and pitch in speech is called prosody see also prosody music it is a topic in linguistics and poetics where it means the number of lines in a verse the number of syllables in each line and the arrangement of those syllables as long or short accented or unaccented music inherited the term meter or metre from the terminology of poetry 27 32 41 the metric structure of music includes meter tempo and all other rhythmic aspects that produce temporal regularity against which the foreground details or durational patterns of the music are projected 42 the terminology of western music is notoriously imprecise in this area 27 macpherson preferred to speak of time and rhythmic shape 34 imogen holst of measured rhythm 43 an early moving picture demonstrates the waltz a dance in triple metre dance music has instantly recognizable patterns of beats built upon a characteristic tempo and measure the imperial society of teachers of dancing defines the tango for example as to be danced in 2 4 time at approximately 66 beats per minute the basic slow step forwards or backwards lasting for one beat is called a slow so that a full right left step is equal to one 2 4 measure 44 see rhythm and dance notation of three measures of a clave pattern preceded by one measure of steady quarter notes this pattern is noted in double time relative to the one above in one instead of two four beat measures four beats followed by three clave patterns the general classifications of metrical rhythm measured rhythm and free rhythm may be distinguished 45 metrical or divisive rhythm by far the most common in western music calculates each time value as a multiple or fraction of the beat normal accents re occur regularly providing systematical grouping measures measured rhythm additive rhythm also calculates each time value as a multiple or fraction of a specified time unit but the accents do not recur regularly within the cycle free rhythm is where there is neither 45 such as in christian chant which has a basic pulse but a freer rhythm like the rhythm of prose compared to that of verse 32 see free time music finally some music such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and non european music such as honkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi may be considered ametric 46 senza misura is an italian musical term for without meter meaning to play without a beat using time to measure how long it will take to play the bar 47 composite rhythm edit bach s sinfonia in f minor bwv 795 mm 1 3 original with composite a composite rhythm is the durations and patterns rhythm produced by amalgamating all sounding parts of a musical texture in music of the common practice period the composite rhythm usually confirms the meter often in metric or even note patterns identical to the pulse on a specific metric level white defines composite rhythm as the resultant overall rhythmic articulation among all the voices of a contrapuntal texture 48 this concept was concurrently defined as attack point rhythm by maury yeston in 1976 as the extreme rhythmic foreground of a composition the absolute surface of articulated movement 49 counter rhythm edit from 1927 and forward the recognized definition of counter rhythm 50 is a subordinate rhythm acting as a counterbalance to the main rhythm oed 50 counter rhythm is not a common word or phrase in the english language appearing approximately 0 01 times per million words in modern written english counter rhythm has been on a steady decrease in usage since its conception with the exception of a spike in usage in the 1970s previous definitions that have been phased out include the musical counter rhythms which marlowe introduced and splashes of counter rhythms flashing tremolos oed 50 in different traditions edit african edit a griot performs at diffa niger west africa the griot is playing a ngoni or xalam in the griot tradition of africa everything related to music has been passed on orally babatunde olatunji 1927 2003 developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum using six vocal sounds goon doon go do pa ta for three basic sounds on the drum each played with either the left or the right hand 51 the debate about the appropriateness of staff notation for african music is a subject of particular interest to outsiders while african scholars from kyagambiddwa to kongo have for the most part accepted the conventions and limitations of staff notation and produced transcriptions to inform and enable discussion and debate 52 john miller 53 has argued that west african music is based on the tension between rhythms polyrhythms created by the simultaneous sounding of two or more different rhythms generally one dominant rhythm interacting with one or more independent competing rhythms these often oppose or complement each other and the dominant rhythm moral values underpin a musical system based on repetition of relatively simple patterns that meet at distant cross rhythmic intervals and on call and response form collective utterances such as proverbs or lineages appear either in phrases translated into drum talk or in the words of songs people expect musicians to stimulate participation by reacting to people dancing appreciation of musicians is related to the effectiveness of their upholding community values 54 indian edit see also bol music indian music has also been passed on orally tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them sheila chandra an english pop singer of indian descent made performances based on her singing these patterns in indian classical music the tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured western edit in the 20th century composers like igor stravinsky béla bartók philip glass and steve reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using odd meters and techniques such as phasing and additive rhythm at the same time modernists such as olivier messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat leading eventually to the widespread use of irrational rhythms in new complexity this use may be explained by a comment of john cage s where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings 55 la monte young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones drones in the 1930s henry cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with leon theremin to invent the rhythmicon the first electronic rhythm machine in order to perform them similarly conlon nancarrow wrote for the player piano linguistics edit main article isochrony in linguistics rhythm or isochrony is one of the three aspects of prosody along with stress and intonation languages can be categorized according to whether they are syllable timed mora timed or stress timed speakers of syllable timed languages such as spanish and cantonese put roughly equal time on each syllable in contrast speakers of stressed timed languages such as english and mandarin chinese put roughly equal time lags between stressed syllables with the timing of the unstressed syllables in between them being adjusted to accommodate the stress timing narmour 56 describes three categories of prosodic rules that create rhythmic successions that are additive same duration repeated cumulative short long or countercumulative long short cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation countercumulation with openness or tension while additive rhythms are open ended and repetitive richard middleton points out this method cannot account for syncopation and suggests the concept of transformation 57 references edit liddell and scott 1996 anon 1971 p 2537 rhythm n oxford english dictionary 3 ed oxford university press 2023 03 02 doi 10 1093 oed 4307024692 retrieved 2024 11 11 cooper meyer 1960 p 6 jirousek 1995 yeston 1976 1 2 lerdahl and jackendoff 1983 toussaint 2005 rothstein 1989 lester 1986 krebber 2023 jordania 2011 pp 99 101 pieslak 2009 p page needed anon 2009 patel 2006 cited in sacks 2007 pp 239 240 sacks 2007 pp 239 240 mithen 2005 p page needed cooper meyer 1960 p 2 berry 1987 p 349 fitch and rosenfeld 2007 p 44 1 2 winold 1975 p 213 handel 1989 yeston 1976 p 50 52 lester 1986 p 77 winold 1975 p 239 1 2 macpherson 1930 p 5 1 2 3 scholes 1977b slatkin n d at 5 05 winold 1975 p 237 1 2 3 moravcsik 2002 p 114 fraisse 1956 page needed woodrow 1951 page needed both quoted in covaciu pogorilowski n d 1 2 3 scholes 1977c macpherson 1930 p page needed 1 2 macpherson 1930 p 3 roads 2001 roads curtis 2004 microsound london mit press p 3 and microsound 2nd ed cambridge mass mit press 2001 p 409 isbn 978 0 262 18215 7 tanguiane 1993 tanguiane 1994 pp 465 502 skrjabin 1960 tanguiane 1994 p 480 latham 2002 winold 1975 pp 209 210 holst 1963 p 17 imperial society of teachers of dancing 1977 p page needed 1 2 cooper 1973 p 30 karpinski 2000 p 19 forney and machlis 2007 p page needed white 1976 p 136 yeston 1976 pp 41 42 1 2 3 counter rhythm n meanings etymology and more oxford english dictionary rhythm notation guide pdf djemberhythms com agawu 2003 p 52 chernoff 1979 chernoff 1979 p page needed sandow 2004 p 257 narmour 1977 cited in winold 1975 p page needed middleton 1990 p page needed sources edit agawu kofi 2003 representing african music postcolonial notes queries positions new york routledge anon the compact edition of the oxford english dictionary ii oxford and new york oxford university press 1971 anon 2009 parrots have got rhythm studies find world science net april 30 berry wallace 1987 structural functions in music second edition new york dover publications isbn 978 0 486 25384 8 chernoff john miller 1979 african rhythm and african sensibility aesthetic and social action in african musical idioms chicago the university of chicago press cooper grosvenor and leonard b meyer 1960 the rhythmic structure of music chicago university of chicago press isbn 0 226 11521 6 0 226 11522 4 cooper paul 1973 perspectives in music theory an historical analytical approach new york dodd mead isbn 0 396 06752 2 covaciu pogorilowski andrei n d musical time theor...