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ed aqueduct distribution edit aqueduct mains could be directly tapped but they more usually fed into public distribution terminals known as castellum aquae water castles which acted as settling tanks and cisterns and supplied various branches and spurs via lead or ceramic pipes these pipes were made in 25 different standardised diameters and were fitted with bronze stopcocks the flow from each pipe calix could be fully or partly opened or shut down and its supply diverted if necessary to any other part of the system in which water demand was for the time being outstripping supply the free supply of water to public basins and drinking fountains was officially prioritised over the supply to the public baths where a very small fee was charged to every bather on behalf of the roman people the supply to basins and baths was in turn prioritised over the requirements of fee paying private users 48 the last were registered along with the bore of pipe that led from the public water supply to their property the wider the pipe the greater the flow and the higher the fee some properties could be bought and sold with a legal right to draw water attached aqueduct officials could assign the right to draw overflow water aqua caduca literally fallen water to certain persons and groups fullers for example used a great deal of fresh water in their trade in return for a commensurate water fee some individuals were gifted a right to draw overflow water gratis as a state honour or grant pipe stamps show that around half rome s water grants were given to elite extremely wealthy citizens of the senatorial class 49 water grants were issued by the emperor or state to named individuals and could not be lawfully sold along with a property or inherited new owners and heirs must therefore negotiate a new grant in their own name in the event these untransferable personal water grants were more often transferred than not 50 roman stopcock bronze uncertain date frontinus thought dishonest private users and corrupt state employees were responsible for most of the losses and outright thefts of water in rome and the worst damage to the aqueducts his de aquaeductu can be read as a useful technical manual a display of persuasive literary skills and a warning to users and his own staff that if they stole water they would be found out because he had all the relevant expert calculations to hand he claimed to know not only how much was stolen but how it was done 51 tampering and fraud were indeed commonplace methods included the fitting of unlicensed or additional outlets some of them many miles outside the city and the illegal widening of lead pipes any of this might involve the bribery or connivance of unscrupulous aqueduct officials or workers archaeological evidence confirms that some users drew an illegal supply but not the likely quantity involved nor the likely combined effect on supply to the city as a whole the measurement of allowances was basically flawed officially approved lead pipes carried inscriptions with information on the pipe s manufacturer its fitter and probably on its subscriber and their entitlement but water allowance was measured in quinaria cross sectional area of the pipe at the point of supply and no formula or physical device was employed to account for variations in velocity rate of flow or actual usage 52 e 54 brun 1991 used lead pipe stamps to calculate a plausible water distribution as a percentage of the whole 17 went to the emperor including his gifts grants and awards 38 went to private individuals and 45 went to the public at large including public baths and fountains 55 management edit in the republican era aqueducts were planned built and managed under authority of the censors or if no censor was in office the aediles in the imperial era lifetime responsibility for water supplies passed to the emperors rome had no permanent central body to manage the aqueducts until augustus created the office of water commissioner curator aquarum this was a high status high profile imperial appointment in 97 ad frontinus who had already had a distinguished career as consul general and provincial governor served both as consul and as curator aquarum under the emperor nerva 56 particular sections of campania s very long complex costly and politically sensitive aqua augusta constructed in the early days of the augustan principate were supervised by wealthy influential local curatores they were drawn from local elites by the local electorate or by augustus himself the entire network relied on just two mountain springs shared with a river that supported freshwater fish providing a free food source for all classes the augusta supplied eight or nine municipalities or cities and an unknown number of farms and villas including bathhouses via branch lines and sub branch lines its extremities were the naval port of misenum and the merchant port of puteoli its delivery is unlikely to have been wholly reliable adequate or free from dispute competition would have been inevitable 57 under the emperor claudius the city of rome s contingent of imperial aquarii aqueduct workers comprised a familia aquarum of 460 both slave and free funded through a combination of imperial largesse and the water fees paid by private subscribers the familia aquarum comprised overseers reservoir keepers line walkers pavers plasterers and other workmen 58 supervised by an imperial freedman who held office as procurator aquarium the curator aquarum had magisterial powers in relation to the water supply assisted by a team of architects public servants notaries and scribes and heralds when working outside the city he was further entitled to two lictors to enforce his authority 59 substantial fines could be imposed for even single offences against the laws relating to aqueducts for example 10 000 sesterces for allowing a tree to damage the conduit and 100 000 sesterces for polluting the water within the conduit or allowing one s slave to do the same 60 uses edit civic and domestic edit standing section of the ruined aqua anio novus near tivoli built in 52 ad rome s first aqueduct 312 bc discharged at very low pressure and at a more or less constant rate in the city s main trading centre and cattle market probably into a low level cascaded series of troughs or basins the upper for household use the lower for watering the livestock traded there most romans would have filled buckets and storage jars at the basins and carried the water to their apartments the better off would have sent slaves to perform the same task the outlet s elevation was too low to offer any city household or building a direct supply the overflow drained into rome s main sewer and from there into the tiber most inhabitants still relied on well water and rainwater at this time rome had no public baths the first was probably built in the next century based on precursors in neighbouring campania a limited number of private baths and small street corner public baths would have had a private water supply but once aqueduct water was brought to the city s higher elevations large and well appointed public baths and fountains were built throughout the city public baths and fountains became distinctive features of roman civilization and the baths in particular became important social centres 61 62 the majority of urban romans lived in multi storeyed blocks of flats insulae some blocks offered water services but only to tenants on the more expensive lower floors the other tenants would have drawn their water gratis from public fountains during the imperial era lead production mostly for pipes became an imperial monopoly and the granting of rights to draw water for private use from state funded aqueducts was made an imperial privilege 63 the provision of free potable water to the general public became one among many gifts to the people of rome from their emperor paid for by him or by the state in 33 bc marcus agrippa built or subsidised 170 public bath houses during his aedileship 64 in frontinus s time c 40 103 ad around 10 of rome s aqueduct water was used to supply 591 public fountains 51 among which were 39 lavishly decorative fountains that frontinus calls munera f according to one of several much later regionaries by the end of the 4th century ad rome s aqueducts within the city 19 of them according to the regionary fed 11 large public baths 965 smaller public bathhouses and 1 352 public fountains 67 farming edit between 65 and 90 of the roman empire s population was involved in some form of agricultural work water was possibly the most important variable in the agricultural economy of the mediterranean world roman italy s natural fresh water sources springs streams rivers and lakes were abundant in some places entirely absent in others rainfall was unpredictable water tended to be scarce when most needed during the warm dry summer growing season farmers whose villas or estates were near a public aqueduct could draw under license a specified quantity of aqueduct water for irrigation at a predetermined time using a bucket let into the conduit via the inspection hatches this was intended to limit the depletion of water supply to users further down the gradient and help ensure a fair distribution among competitors at the time when water was most needed and scarce 68 columella recommends that any farm should contain a never failing spring stream or river 69 but acknowledges that not every farm did aqueduct arcade near belgrade in ottoman serbia painted by luigi mayer farmland without a reliable summer water source was virtually worthless during the growing season a modest local irrigation system might consume as much water as the city of rome and the livestock whose manure fertilised the fields must be fed and watered all year round at least some roman landowners and farmers relied in part or whole on aqueduct water to raise crops as their primary or sole source of income but the fraction of aqueduct water involved can only be guessed at more certainly the creation of municipal and city aqueducts brought a growth in the intensive and efficient suburban market farming of fragile perishable commodities such as flowers for perfumes and for festival garlands grapes vegetables and orchard fruits and of small livestock such as pigs and chickens close to the municipal and urban markets 70 a licensed right to use aqueduct water on farmland could lead to increased productivity a cash income through the sale of surplus foodstuffs and an increase in the value of the land itself in the countryside permissions to draw aqueduct water for irrigation were particularly hard to get the exercise and abuse of such rights were subject to various known legal disputes and judgements and at least one political campaign in 184 bc cato tried to block all unlawful rural outlets especially those owned by the landed elite this may be connected to cato s diatribe as censor against the ex consul lucius furius purpureo look how much he bought the land for where he is channeling the water 71 cato s attempted reform proved impermanent at best though illegal tapping could be punished by seizure of assets including the illegally watered land and its produce this law seems never to have been used and was probably impracticable while water thefts profited farmers they could also create food surpluses and keep food prices low grain shortages in particular could lead to famine and social unrest any practical solution must strike a balance between the water needs of urban populations and grain producers tax the latter s profits and secure sufficient grain at reasonable cost for the roman poor the so called corn dole and the army rather than seek to impose unproductive and probably unenforcable bans the authorities issued individual water grants and licenses and regulated water outlets though with variable success in the 1st century ad pliny the elder like cato could fulminate against grain producers who continued to wax fat on profits from public water and public land 72 some landholders avoided such restrictions and entanglements by buying water access rights to distant springs not necessarily on their own land a few of high wealth and status built their own aqueducts to transport such water from source to field or villa mumius niger valerius vegetus bought the rights to a spring and its water from his neighbour and access rights to a corridor of intervening land then built an aqueduct of just under 10 kilometres connecting the springhead to his own villa 73 industrial edit map of the gold mine at dolaucothi showing its aqueducts rock cut aqueduct feeding water to the mining site at las médulas some aqueducts supplied water to industrial sites usually via an open channel cut into the ground clay lined or wood shuttered to reduce water loss most such leats were designed to operate at the steep gradients that could deliver the high water volumes needed in mining operations water was used in hydraulic mining to strip the overburden and expose the ore by hushing to fracture and wash away metal bearing rock already heated and weakened by fire setting and to power water wheel driven stamps and trip hammers that crushed ore for processing evidence of such leats and machines has been found at dolaucothi in south west wales 74 75 mining sites such as dolaucothi and las medulas in north west spain show multiple aqueducts that fed water from local rivers to the mine head the channels may have deteriorated rapidly or become redundant as the nearby ore was exhausted las medulas shows at least seven such leats and dolaucothi at least five at dolaucothi the miners used holding reservoirs as well as hushing tanks and sluice gates to control flow and drop chutes were used for the diversion of water supplies the remaining traces see palimpsest of such channels allows the mining sequence to be inferred a number of other sites fed by several aqueducts have not yet been thoroughly explored or excavated such as those at longovicium near lanchester south of hadrian s wall in which the water supplies may have been used to power trip hammers for forging iron at barbegal in roman gaul a reservoir fed an aqueduct that drove a cascaded series of 15 or 16 overshot water mills grinding flour for the arles region similar arrangements though on a lesser scale have been found in caesarea venafrum and roman era athens rome s aqua traiana drove a flour mill at the janiculum west of the tiber a mill in the basement of the baths of caracalla was driven by aqueduct overspill this was one of many city mills driven by aqueduct water with or without official permission a law of the 5th century forbade the illicit use of aqueduct water for milling 76 decline in use edit a portion of the eifel aqueduct germany built in 80 ad its channel is narrowed by an accretion of calcium carbonate accumulated through lack of maintenance during the fall of the western roman empire some aqueducts were delibe...