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buddhi mahat ego ahamkara mind manas the five sensory capacities the five action capacities and the five subtle elements or modes of sensory content tanmatras form rūpa sound shabda smell gandha taste rasa touch sparsha from which the five gross elements or forms of perceptual objects emerge earth prithivi water jala fire agni air vāyu ether ākāsha 44 11 prakṛti is the source of our experience it is not the evolution of a series of material entities but the emergence of experience itself 12 it is description of experience and the relations between its elements not an explanation of the origin of the universe 12 all prakṛti has these three guṇas in different proportions each guṇa is dominant at specific times of day the interplay of these guṇa defines the character of someone or something of nature and determines the progress of life 45 46 the samkhya theory of guṇa was widely discussed developed and refined by various schools of indian philosophies samkhya s philosophical treatises also influenced the development of various theories of hindu ethics 30 thought processes and mental events are conscious only to the extent they receive illumination from puruṣa in samkhya consciousness is compared to light which illuminates the material configurations or shapes assumed by the mind so intellect after receiving cognitive structures from the mind and illumination from pure consciousness creates thought structures that appear to be conscious 47 ahamkara the ego or the phenomenal self appropriates all mental experiences to itself and thus personalizes the objective activities of mind and intellect by assuming possession of them 48 but consciousness is itself independent of the thought structures it illuminates 47 liberation or mokṣa edit the supreme good is mokṣa which consists in the permanent impossibility of the incidence of pain in the realisation of the self as self pure and simple samkhyakarika i 3 49 samkhya school considers moksha as a natural quest of every jiva the samkhyakarika states as the unconscious milk functions for the sake of nourishment of the calf so the prakriti functions for the sake of moksha of the spirit samkhya karika verse 57 50 51 samkhya regards ignorance avidyā as the root cause of suffering and bondage samsara samkhya states that the way out of this suffering is through knowledge viveka mokṣa liberation states samkhya school results from knowing the difference between prakṛti avyakta vyakta and puruṣa jña 16 more specifically the puruṣa that has attained liberation is to be distinguished from a puruṣa that is still bound on account of the liberated puruṣa being free from its subtle body synonymous with buddhi in which is located the mental dispositions that individuates it and causes it to experience bondage 52 58 puruṣa the eternal pure consciousness due to ignorance identifies itself with products of prakṛti such as intellect buddhi and ego ahamkara this results in endless transmigration and suffering however once the realization arises that puruṣa is distinct from prakṛti is more than empirical ego and that puruṣa is deepest conscious self within the self gains isolation kaivalya and freedom moksha 53 though in conventional terms the bondage is ascribed to the puruṣa this is ultimately a mistake this is because the samkhya school samkhya karika verse 63 maintains that it is actually prakṛti that binds itself and thus bondage should in reality be ascribed to prakṛti not to the puruṣa 54 by seven modes nature binds herself by herself by one she releases herself for the soul s wish samkhya karika verse 63 vacaspati gave a metaphorical example to elaborate the position that the puruṣa is only mistakenly ascribed bondage although the king is ascribed victory or defeat it is actually the soldiers that experience it 55 it is then not merely that bondage is only mistakenly ascribed to the puruṣa but that liberation is like bondage wrongly ascribed to the puruṣa and should be ascribed to prakṛti alone 52 60 other forms of samkhya teach that mokṣa is attained by one s own development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices moksha is described by samkhya scholars as a state of liberation where sattva guṇa predominates 15 epistemology edit the samkhya school considers perception inference and reliable testimony as three reliable means to knowledge 16 17 samkhya considered pratyakṣa or dṛṣṭam direct sense perception anumāna inference and śabda or āptavacana verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras to be the only valid means of knowledge or pramana 16 unlike some other schools samkhya did not consider the following three pramanas to be epistemically proper upamāṇa comparison and analogy arthāpatti postulation deriving from circumstances or anupalabdi non perception negative cognitive proof 17 pratyakṣa प्रत्यक्ष means perception it is of two types in hindu texts external and internal external perception is described as that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects while internal perception is described by this school as that of inner sense the mind 56 57 the ancient and medieval indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception 58 indriyarthasannikarsa direct experience by one s sensory organ s with the object whatever is being studied avyapadesya non verbal correct perception is not through hearsay according to ancient indian scholars where one s sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else s perception avyabhicara does not wander correct perception does not change nor is it the result of deception because one s sensory organ or means of observation is drifting defective suspect and vyavasayatmaka definite correct perception excludes judgments of doubt either because of one s failure to observe all the details or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe or not observing what one does not want to observe 58 some ancient scholars proposed unusual perception as pramana and called it internal perception a proposal contested by other indian scholars the internal perception concepts included pratibha intuition samanyalaksanapratyaksa a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal and jnanalaksanapratyaksa a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a topic of study by observing its current state 59 further some schools considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from pratyakṣa pranama so as to contrast nirnaya definite judgment conclusion from anadhyavasaya indefinite judgment 60 anumāna अनुमान means inference it is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason 61 observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of anumana 56 in all except one hindu philosophies 62 this is a valid and useful means to knowledge the method of inference is explained by indian texts as consisting of three parts pratijna hypothesis hetu a reason and drshtanta examples 63 the hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts state the ancient indian scholars sadhya that idea which needs to proven or disproven and paksha the object on which the sadhya is predicated the inference is conditionally true if sapaksha positive examples as evidence are present and if vipaksha negative examples as counter evidence are absent for rigor the indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps for example they demand vyapti the requirement that the hetu reason must necessarily and separately account for the inference in all cases in both sapaksha and vipaksha 63 64 a conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana conclusion 65 śabda शब्द means relying on word testimony of past or present reliable experts 17 66 hiriyanna explains sabda pramana as a concept which means reliable expert testimony the schools which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts and with the limited time and energy available he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly 67 he must cooperate with others to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other s lives this means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written but through sabda words 67 the reliability of the source is important and legitimate knowledge can only come from the sabda of vedas 17 67 the disagreement between the schools has been on how to establish reliability some schools such as carvaka state that this is never possible and therefore sabda is not a proper pramana other schools debate means to establish reliability 68 causality edit this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed july 2012 learn how and when to remove this message the samkhya system is based on sat kārya vāda or the theory of causation according to satkāryavāda the effect is pre existent in the cause there is only an apparent or illusory change in the makeup of the cause and not a material one when it becomes effect since effects cannot come from nothing the original cause or ground of everything is seen as prakṛti 69 more specifically samkhya system follows the prakṛti parināma vāda parināma denotes that the effect is a real transformation of the cause the cause under consideration here is prakṛti or more precisely moola prakṛti primordial matter the samkhya system is therefore an exponent of an evolutionary theory of matter beginning with primordial matter in evolution prakṛti is transformed and differentiated into multiplicity of objects evolution is followed by dissolution in dissolution the physical existence all the worldly objects mingle back into prakṛti which now remains as the undifferentiated primordial substance this is how the cycles of evolution and dissolution follow each other but this theory is very different from the modern theories of science in the sense that prakṛti evolves for each jiva separately giving individual bodies and minds to each and after liberation these elements of prakṛti merges into the moola prakṛti another uniqueness of sāmkhya is that not only physical entities but even mind ego and intelligence are regarded as forms of unconsciousness quite distinct from pure consciousness samkhya theorizes that prakṛti is the source of the perceived world of becoming it is pure potentiality that evolves itself successively into twenty four tattvas or principles the evolution itself is possible because prakṛti is always in a state of tension among its constituent strands or gunas sattva rajas and tamas in a state of equilibrium of three gunas when the three together are one unmanifest prakṛti which is unknowable a guṇa is an entity that can change either increase or decrease therefore pure consciousness is called nirguna or without any modification the evolution obeys causality relationships with primal nature itself being the material cause of all physical creation the cause and effect theory of samkhya is called satkārya vāda theory of existent causes and holds that nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness all evolution is simply the transformation of primal nature from one form to another samkhya cosmology describes how life emerges in the universe the relationship between puruṣa and prakṛti is crucial to patanjali s yoga system the strands of samkhya thought can be traced back to the vedic speculation of creation it is also frequently mentioned in the mahabharata and yogavasishta historical development edit larson 1969 discerns four basic periods in the development of sankhya 70 8 9th c bce 5th c bce ancient speculations including speculative vedic hymns and the oldest prose upanishads 4th c bce 1st c ce proto sankhya speculations as found in the middle upanishads the buddhacarita the bhagavad gita and the mahabharata 1st 10 11th c ce classical sankhya 15th 17th c renaissance of later sankhya larson 1987 discerns three phases of development of the term sankhya relating to three different meanings 71 vedic period and the mauryan empire c 1500 bce until the 4th and 3rd c bce 71 relating to number enumeration or calculation 71 intellectual inquiry was frequently cast in the format of elaborate enumerations 71 references to samkhya do not denote integrated systems of thought 22 8th 7th c bce first centuries ce 22 as a masculine noun referring to someone who calculates enumerates or discriminates properly or correctly 71 proto samkhya 72 related to the early ascetic traditions reflected in the moksadharma section of the mahabharata the bhagavad gita and the cosmological speculations of the puranas 22 the notion of samkhya becomes related to methods of reasoning that result in liberating knowledge vidya jnana viveka that end the cycle of dukkha and rebirth 73 during this period sankhya becomes explicitly related to meditation spiritual practices and religious cosmology 23 and is primarily a methodology for attaining liberation and appears to allow for a great variety of philosophical formulations 23 according to larson sankhya means in the upanishads and the epic simply the way of salvation by knowledge 23 as such it contains psychological analyses of experience that become dominant motifs in jain and buddhist meditation contexts 74 typical samkhya terminology and issues develop 74 while yoga emphasizes asanas breathing and ascetic practices samkhya is concerned with intellectual analyses and proper discernment 74 but samkhya reasonong is not really differentiated from yoga 72 according to van buitenen these ideas developed in the interaction between various sramanas and ascetic groups 75 numerous ancient teachers are named in the various texts including kapila and pancasikha 76 1st c bce first centuries ce 72 as a neuter term referring to the beginning of a technical philosophical system 77 pre karika sankhya ca 100 bce 200 ce 78 this period ends with ishvara krishna s iśvarakṛṣṇa 350 ce samkhyakarika 72 according to larson the shift of samkhya from speculations to the normative conceptualization hints but does not conclusively prove that samkhya may be the oldest of the indian technical philosophical schools e g nyaya vaisheshika and buddhist ontology one that evolved over time and influenced the technical aspects of buddhism and jainism 79 note 2 ancient speculations edit in the beginning this was self alone in the shape of a person puruṣa he looking around saw nothing but his self atman he first said this is i therefore he became i by name brihadaranyaka upanishad 1 4 1 81 82 the early speculative phase took place in the first half of the first millennium bce 70 when ascetic spirituality and monastic sramana and yati traditions came into vogue in india and ancient scholars combined enumerated set s of principles with a methodology of reasoning that results in spiritual knowledge vidya jnana viveka 73...