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alua teine two girls for persons or ʻo fale e lua two houses ʻo tagata e toʻalua two persons or ʻo lāʻua them those two people the plural is known by the omission of the article ʻo ʻulu breadfruits particles denoting multitude as ʻau vao mou and moíu and such plural is emphatic ʻo le ʻau iʻa a shoal of fishes ʻo le vao tagata a forest of men i e a great company ʻo le mou mea a great number of things ʻo le motu o tagata a crowd of people these particles cannot be used indiscriminately motu could not be used with fish nor ʻau with men lengthening or more correctly doubling a vowel in the word tuafāfine instead of tuafafine sisters of a brother this method is rare 17 plurality is also expressed by internal reduplication in samoan verbs cv infix by which the root or stem of a word or part of it is repeated savali walk sg sāvavali walking pl sā va vali savali sāvavali walk sg walking pl alofa love sg ālolofa loving pl a lo lofa moravcsik 1978 broselow and mccarthy 1984 alofa ālolofa love sg loving pl le tamāloa the man sg 17 tamāloloa men pl tamā lo loa le tamāloa tamāloloa the man sg 17 men pl possessives edit possessive relations are indicated by the particles a or o possessive pronouns also have a forms and o forms lou lau lona lana lo and la matou etc writers in the 1800s like platt were unable to understand the underlying principles governing the use of the two forms there is no general rule which will apply to every case the governing noun decides which should be used thus ʻo le poto ʻo le tufuga fai fale the wisdom of the builder ʻo le amio a le tama the conduct of the boy ʻupu o fāgogo words of fāgogo a form of narrated and sung storytelling but ʻupu a tagata words of men pratt instead gives a rote list of uses and exceptions o is used with nouns denoting parts of the body fofoga o le aliʻi eyes of the chief so of hands legs hair etc except the beard which takes a lana ʻava but a chief s is lona soesa different terms and words apply to chiefs and people of rank and status according to the polite variant of the samoan language similar to the polite variant in the japanese language the mind and its affections ʻo le toʻasa o le aliʻi the wrath of the chief so of the will desire love fear etc ʻo le manaʻo o le nuʻu the desire of the land ʻo le mataʻu o le tama the fear of the boy houses and all their parts canoes land country trees plantations thus pou o le fale posts of the house lona fanua lona naʻu etc people relations slaves ʻo ona tagata his people ʻo le faletua o le aliʻi the chief s wife so also of a son daughter father etc exceptions tane husband ava wife of a common man and children which take a lana ava ma ana fānau garments etc if for use ona ʻofu except when spoken of as property riches things laid up in store a is used with words denoting conduct custom etc amio masani tu language words speeches gagana upu fetalaiga afioga ʻo le upu a le tama property of every kind except garments etc for use those who serve animals men killed and carried off in war lana tagata food of every kind weapons and implements as clubs knives swords bows cups tattooing instruments etc except spears axes and ʻoso the stick used for planting taro which take o work as lana galuega except faiva which takes o some words take either a or o as manatu taofi ʻo se tali a matautu an answer given by matautu ʻo se tali ʻo matautu an answer given to matautu exceptions nouns denoting the vessel and its contents do not take the particle between them ʻo le ʻato talo a basket of taro ʻo le fale oloa a house of property shop or store house nouns denoting the material of which a thing is made ʻo le tupe auro a coin of gold ʻo le vaʻa ifi a canoe of teak nouns indicating members of the body are rather compounded with other nouns instead of being followed by a possessive particle ʻo le mataivi an eye of bone ʻo le isu vaʻa a nose of a canoe ʻo le gutu sumu a mouth of the sumu type of fish ʻo le loto alofa a heart of love many other nouns are compounded in the same way ʻo le apaau tane the male wing ʻo le pito pou the end of the post the country or town of a person omits the particle ʻo le tagata sāmoa a man or person of samoa nouns ending in a lengthen or double that letter before other nouns in the possessive form ʻo le sua susu ʻo le maga ala or maga a ala a branch road the sign of the possessive is not used between a town and its proper name but the topic marker ʻoe is repeated thus putting the two in apposition ʻo le ʻaʻai ʻo matautu the commons of matautu adjectives edit some adjectives are primitive as umi long poto wise some are formed from nouns by the addition of a meaning covered with or infested with thus ʻeleʻele dirt ʻeleʻelea dirty palapala mud palapalā muddy others are formed by doubling the noun as pona a knot ponapona knotty fatu a stone fatufatu stony others are formed by prefixing faʻa to the noun as ʻo le tu faʻasāmoa samoan custom or faʻamatai like ly in english the faʻa often expresses similitude ʻo le amio faʻapuaʻa to behave like a pig literally in one or two cases a is prefixed as apulupulu sticky from pulu resin avanoa open from vā and noa verbs are also used as adjectives ʻo le ala faigatā a difficult road ʻo le vai tafe a river flowing water ʻo le laʻau ola a live tree also the passive ʻo le aliʻi mātaʻutia ma is the prefix of condition sae to tear masae torn as ʻo le ʻie masae torn cloth goto to sink magoto sunk ʻo le vaʻa magoto a sunken canoe a kind of compound adjective is formed by the union of a noun with an adjective as ʻo le tagata lima mālosi a strong man literally the stronghanded man ʻo le tagata loto vaivai a weak spirited man nouns denoting the materials out of which things are made are used as adjectives ʻo le mama auro a gold ring ʻo le fale maʻa a stone house or they may be reckoned as nouns in the genitive adjectives expressive of colours are mostly reduplicated words as sinasina or paʻepaʻe white uliuli black samasama yellow ʻenaʻena brown mumu red etc but when they follow a noun they are usually found in their simple form as ʻo le ʻie sina white cloth ʻo le puaʻa uli black pig the plural is sometimes distinguished by doubling the first syllable as sina white plural sisina tele great pl tetele in compound words the first syllable of the root is doubled as maualuga high pl maualuluga occasionally the reciprocal form is used as a plural as lele flying ʻo manu felelei flying creatures birds comparison is generally effected by using two adjectives both in the positive state thus e lelei lenei ʻa e leaga lena this is good and that is bad not in itself but in comparison with the other e umi lenei a e puupuu lena this is long and that is short the superlative is formed by the addition of an adverb such as matuā tasi sili silisiliʻese aʻiaʻi naʻuā as ʻua lelei tasi it alone is good that is nothing equals it ʻua matuā silisili ona lelei it is very exceedingly good ʻua tele naʻuā it is very great silisili ese highest ese differing from all others naua has often the meaning of too much ua tele naua it is greater than is required syntax edit sentences have different types of word order and the four most commonly used are verb subject object vso verb object subject vos subject verb object svo object verb subject ovs 13 19 20 for example the girl went to the house svo girl subject went verb house object samoan word order vso sa alu went le teine girl ʻi le fale house sa alu le teine ʻi le fale went girl house vos sa alu went ʻi le fale house le teine girl sa alu ʻi le fale le teine went house girl ovs le fale house sa alu went ʻi ai le teine girl le fale sa alu ʻi ai le teine house went girl svo le teine girl sa alu went ʻi le fale house le teine sa alu ʻi le fale girl went house negation edit a phrase or clause can be made negative by the addition of a particle a morpheme usually meaning not there are two common negative particles in samoan lē and leʻi sometimes also written as lei lē has the allomorphs le or le 18 lē should not be confused for le the specific singular article which indicates that the noun phrase refers to one particular entity 21 lē and lei negate declarative and interrogative sentences but do not negate imperative sentences negative imperative verbs are discussed later in this entry lē meaning not can be combined with all tense aspect mood particles or tam particles except those that are optative and subjunctive such as neʻi seʻi and ʻia 22 a negative particle may mark a negative verbal clause as seen in the example below 23 1 ua perf lē not fiafia happy le art tama boy ua lē fiafia le tama perf not happy art boy the boy is unhappy in this example of a negated declarative sentence it can be seen that in samoan there is no equivalent gloss for unhappy the negative particle lē modifies the verbal clause to form something like not happy instead the meaning of leʻi differs slightly from that of lē leʻi indicates that an event or state has not been actualised yet or for the time being but is expected to become so therefore leʻi is often translated as not yet rather than simply not leʻi is usually only combined with the general tam particle e or te see the example below 24 2 e genr lei not yet tea part tutuila tutuila ae but amata begin le art pele card playing e lei tea tutuila ae amata le pele genr not yet part tutuila but begin art card playing the playing of cards started already before we left tutuila the above example 2 demonstrates the common usage of leʻi to mean not yet in some cases leʻi simply means no not at all expressing the concept that an event that had been expected to happen or had been thought to have happened did not occur after all 25 there is a particle faʻa that acts as a causative as well being as the most common prefix in the samoan language this particle can be attached to nearly all nouns and non ergative verbs when attached to negated verb phrases faʻa means having the qualities of or being similar to whatever is denoted by the basic stem or phrase it is often combined with the negative particle lē or its allomorphs to form the construction faʻa lē prefixing faʻa lē onto a verb provides a polite way to say a negative phrase mosel hovdhaugen 26 state that these particles provide three ways to express negative evaluations that vary on a scale of politeness as demonstrated below 3 leaga lē lelei fa a lē lelei bad not good like not good less polite more polite position of negation in sentences edit in samoan particles modifying sentences usually take the first place in the sentence with the exception of the question particle ʻea the particles forming a category are not always mutually exclusive for instance while two negative particles cannot be combined certain prepositions can occur together additionally negative prenuclear particles will follow the preverbal pronoun or the tam particle 27 in the following examples from mosel hovdhaugen 28 the negative particles follow the tam particle te example 1 e or the preverbal pronoun example 2 ʻou 1 e genr lē not lelei good e lē lelei genr not good it is not good 2 ʻou 1sg te genr lē not alu go i ld apia apia ʻou te lē alu i apia 1sg genr not go ld apia i don t go to apia in both examples the negative particle is in the second position after the preverbal pronoun and or the tam particle in example 2 there is both a preverbal pronoun ʻou and a tam particle following it te this demonstrates that the negative particle must always follow these two types of preceding particles in the sentence even if they are both present verbs exempt from negation edit there are two existential verbs in samoan iai to exist be present and the negative equivalent leai leái or le ái to not exist be absent they differ from all other samoan verbs in at least one respect they cannot be negated by a negative particle mosel hovdhaugen 1992 pp 114 suggest that this originates in the etymology of these verbs the negative existential verb leai is probably derived from lē not and ai anaph not there it seems that the inclusion of negation in the verb itself disallows the negative particle from the sentence structure see the example from mosel hovdhaugen 1992 pp 56 in the sentence below 1 e genr leai not exist ni art nsp pl taavale car aua because e genr lei not yet oo reach atu dir i ld ai anaph ala road sp pl taavale car e leai ni taavale aua e lei oo atu i ai ala taavale genr not exist art nsp pl car because genr not yet reach dir ld anaph road sp pl car there were not any cars because the roads did not reach there in this example the existential verb leai has been used to indicate the absence of something that is the cars rather than using a negative particle however a negative particle lei has been used in the second clause modifying the verbal clause to create the phrase the roads did not reach there with the emphasis on the absence of the roads in that area according to mosel hovdhaugen 1992 pp 480 481 the only tam particles that appear with leai are ʻua and e or te this means that leai acts as if non existence is a general fact rather than linking it to a specific point in time when another verb follows leai within the same verb phrase it functions as a more emphatic negation meaning something like not at all this is demonstrated in the following example 2 e genr leai not exist gāoi move sina sina e leai gāoi sina genr not exist move sina sina didn t move at all here the addition of leai to the verb gāoi to move makes the statement more emphatic not only did sina not move she did not move at all negative imperative verbs edit there are two negative imperative verbs ʻaua and sōia ʻaua should not be confused with aua which means because these negative imperative verbs can be used independently of negative particles as the negation is in the verb itself an extra particle is not required ʻaua means don t do should not do and is employed to express commands in both direct and indirect speech what should not be done is indicated by a verbal complement clause as seen in the example below 29 1 ʻaua don t e 2sg te genr fa asāunoa torture ʻi ld mea ola thing life sp pl ʻaua e te fa asāunoa ʻi mea ola don t 2sg genr torture ld thing life sp pl do not torture animals as discussed above this sentence does not require a negative particle because the negative imperative verb is sufficient alternatively sōia means that one should stop doing something one has already started 30 as with ʻaua what should not be done is indicated by a verbal complement in direct speech sōia is either used in the imperative without any tam particle or in the optative marked by seiʻi 30 see the example below with sōia as the negative imperative 2 mandy jane mandy jane sōia stop e 2sg te genr faitala gossip mandy jane sōia e te faitala mandy jane stop 2sg genr gossip mandy jane stop gossiping this works differently from ʻaua although they are both imperative it can be seen here that sōia means something like cease what you are doing immediately while ʻaua means don t do that action in a general sen...