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re vase painters since vagn poulsen s 1937 study der strenge stil the severe style the name has become exclusively associated with sculpture dating and relative chronology edit taranto goddess pergamon museum there is no firm chronology for the severe style the dating of early 5th century bce sculpture is approximate and consequently its first appearance has been conjectured to be at some point between 525 and 480 bce 2 the one exception to this general rule of uncertainty is the tyrannicide group a replacement for the bronze created by antenor in 514 to commemorate the assassins of the tyrant hipparchus was sculpted by kritios and nesiotes and dated in an inscription of 477 6 bce this piece now known only from roman copies 3 preserves the poses and facial features familiar from archaic art and combines it with a novel treatment of multiple viewpoints feeling for mass and anatomical observation that distinguishes it as one of several athenian transitional works another is the kritian boy c 480 bce 4 whose distribution of weight onto one leg lowered right hip and inclination of head and shoulders exceeds the formulas of the late archaic kouroi marks a step toward the greater naturalism and individualization of the classical as b s ridgway puts it no longer a type but a subject general characteristics edit the depredations of war and the sumptuary laws of solon ensured that very little sculpture was practiced at athens in the first half of the 5th century instead we have to look to other cities to trace the development of the severe style we can observe the general characteristics of the period on its greatest masterpiece the temple of zeus in olympia attributed to the olympia master here we find a simplicity of forms especially in dress and the absence of decoration a feeling of heaviness both in the gravity of the body and the doughy cloth of the peplos indeed this era sees a shift from the use of the doric chiton to the ionic peplos whose irregular groupings and folds better express the contours of the underlying body one can also witness on the pediments of the temple the slight pout typical of this time where the upper lip projects a little over the lower and a volume to the eyelids a striking departure from the fixed archaic smile of the 6th century and suggestive perhaps of the brooding pathos also typical of the idiom there is further experimentation with the expression of emotion on the metopes of the temple depicting the labors of herakles an experiment not pursued by later classical art cast of apollo from temple of zeus olympia original attributed to the olympia master cast in the mfa munich a roman era bust of themistocles in severe style 5 based on a greek original in the museo archeologico ostiense ostia rome italy the lost original of this bust dated to circa 470 bc has been described as the first true portrait of an individual european 6 brunilde s ridgway identifies six traits that might serve to define the style a certain simplicity or severity of forms visible in both facial features and the treatment of drapery a heaviness of traits in open contrast to the lighter features of archaic sculpture a feeling for the tectonics of the human body which conceives of each figure as composed of certain basic structural sections as contrasted with the lack of articulation and the emphasis on outlines in archaic statuary more especially in the human face the eyelids acquire volume often appearing as thick rims around the eyes and chins become particularly heavy cloth also is made to look heavier and doughy the severe period owes its name to this most evident of all its traits contrary to the decorative approach of archaic sculptors who multiplied details and fractioned into a variety of patterns the basic unity of single garments severe artists proceeded as if by a process of elimination thereby focusing emphasis on the few elements retained from this point of view the term severe describes the style more accurately than the terms transitional or early classical which stress continuity rather than difference a change in drapery readily apparent in two forms a a shift from ionic to doric fashions b a change in the treatment of the folds so that the final effect resembles corrugated iron a change in subject matter one aspect of this phenomenon is an increase in characterization the basic kouros type now becomes sharply differentiated into either apollo or a human being and the difference no longer rests on the attributes held by the statue apollo is recognizable not only through a certain grandeur or ethos one of those intangible elements in greek art which are so difficult to pinpoint but with which one has inevitably to reckon but mostly because he now wears his hair long while the contemporary athlete has his short interest in emotion the increase in characterization with its potential for narrative is obviously accompanied by an interest in the mechanics of expression the range goes from quiet brooding to worried forethought to physical distress and ends with the uncontrollable muscular distortions of death interest in motion emotions or physical distress are usually dependent upon strain or action characterization has led to narrative thus traits 3 and 4 combine to produce a series of statues in motion this feature is not wholly dependent upon the demand for athletic sculpture nor can it be considered a total innovation of the severe period since figures in action had already appeared during the archaic phase the predominant use of bronze 7 individual masters edit the severe artists whose names have come down to us include the collaborators kritios and nesiotes pythagoras calamis and most notably myron of eleutherae myron was a late practitioner of the style active in the 450s and 440s and the author of two identifiable sculptures that have survived in copies his discobolus and the athena marsyas group both seemingly original in composition these works capture several of the chief characteristics of the style in its feeling for the dramatic moment its rhythm and balance of masses and the embodiment of feeling through the pregnant gesture why this naturalizing trend should emerge in early fifth century greek art has been a matter of much scholarly speculation renate thomas summarizes the contending views thus the significance of the late archaic period remains unclear is it already a response to the awakening sense of personal value which will then be held back during the severe style through a self imposed discipline schefold or has there developed since the late archaic period a new and freer spirit which however becomes clearly visible only in the severe or even in the classical style g v lucken e langlotz b schweitzer did the discovery of the mind in the sixth century produce two different effects schachermeyr one of which produces new sets of laws through reflection upon traditional norms or does only the strong freedom of movement in the figurative art of the late archaic period the self confident recognition of personal individuality go back to a change in the sixth century while the causes of the purified world of forms of the severe style are others 8 selected works edit aspasia copy orig c 460 50 berlin e k 166 167 605 athena giustiniani athena and marsyas group blond kouros s head of the acropolis c 480 athens 689 borgia stele c 470 naples 98 bronze athlete c 470 mt holyoke coll boi i 1926 bronze athlete holding ball c 460 berlin misc 8089 bronze head c 460 athens 6590 bronze head from porticello c 450 reggio bronze poseidon from kreusis c 460 athens br 11761 charioteer of delphi chatsworth head choiseul gouffier apollo diskobolos dodona zeus dove stele eros soranzo copy orig c 460 st petersberg 85 esquiline venus 1st century ad roman copy of a greek original euthydikos kore grave stele of pollis guistiniani hestia harmodius and aristogeiton head of athena from aegina c 460 50 paris 3109 heracles copy orig c 450 40 oxford 1928 kassel apollo kritios boy c 490 80 athens 3938 lemnian athena leonidas c 475 athens 3613 ludovisi throne ludovisi peplophoros copy orig c 470 60 rome terme 8577 metopes and pediments of the temple of zeus olympia accredited to the olympia master metopes of temple e at selinunte motya charioteer mourning athena omphalos apollo parthenon metopes 9 pediment of the temple of aphaea aegina perseus head copy rome conservatori pharsalos stele c 470 60 paris 701 artemision bronze riace bronzes taranto goddess tiber apollo copy orig c 450 rome terme 608 zeus ganymede group notes edit also called the strong style see t b l webster greek art and literature 530 400 bc oxford 1939 p 45 ff r thomas athletenstatuetten 1981 summarizes the competing views aside from the example found at hadrian s villa in tivoli other heads and torsos survive including one from the baiae studio affording us some idea of the reliability of roman reproductions see j boardman greek sculpture the classical period p 18 for a discussion it is uncertain if this piece was part of the perserschutt and therefore set up on the acropolis before or after the persian invasion see bs ridgway severe style in greek art 1970 p 31 3 for chronology cahn herbert a gerin dominique 1988 themistocles at magnesia the numismatic chronicle 148 19 jstor 42668124 tanner jeremy 2006 the invention of art history in ancient greece religion society and artistic rationalisation cambridge university press p 97 isbn 9780521846141 b s ridgway the severe style in greek sculpture 1970 p8 11 r thomas atheletenstatutten 1981 translation b s ridgway in ridgway late archaic sculpture p 2 in greek art archaic into classical a symposium 1985 arguably high rather than early classical depending on date if following r carpenter the architects of the parthenon p 55 we accept the south metopes 13 20 are remnants of the kimonian parthenon dörpfeld s parthenon ii then they belong to the end of the severe period bibliography edit wikimedia commons has media related to severe style greek sculptures vagn häger poulsen der strenge stil studien zur geschichte der griechischen plastik 480 450 kopenhagen 1937 v knigge bewegte figuren figuren d großplastik im strengen stil diss münchen 1965 f schachermeyr die frühe klassik der griechen stuttgart 1966 b sismondo ridgway the severe style in greek sculpture princeton n j 1970 r tölle kastenbein frühklassische peplosfiguren mainz 1980 r thomas athletenstatuetten der spätarchaik und des strengen stils rome 1981 r r holloway the severe style new evidence and old problems in numismatica e antichità classiche quaderni ticinesi 17 1988 v t e ancient greece timeline history geography periods cycladic civilization minoan civilization mycenaean greece greek dark ages archaic greece classical greece hellenistic greece roman greece geography aegean sea aeolis crete cyrenaica cyprus doris epirus hellespont ionia ionian sea macedonia magna graecia peloponnesus pontus taurica ancient greek colonies city states politics military city states argos athens byzantion chalcis corinth ephesus miletus pergamon eretria kerkyra larissa megalopolis thebes megara rhodes samos sparta lissus crete kingdoms bithynia cappadocia epirus greco bactrian kingdom indo greek kingdom macedonia pergamon pontus ptolemaic kingdom seleucid empire federations confederations doric hexapolis c 1100 c 560 bc italiote league c 800 389 bc ionian league c 650 404 bc peloponnesian league c 550 366 bc amphictyonic league c 595 279 bc acarnanian league c 500 31 bc hellenic league 499 449 bc delian league 478 404 bc chalcidian league 430 348 bc boeotian league c 424 c 395 bc aetolian league c 400 188 bc second athenian league 378 355 bc thessalian league 374 196 bc arcadian league 370 c 230 bc epirote league 370 168 bc league of corinth 338 322 bc euboean league c 300 bc c 300 ad achaean league 280 146 bc politics boule free city koinon proxeny stasis symmachia tagus tyrant athenian agora areopagus dikasterion ecclesia graphe paranomon heliaia ostracism spartan ecclesia ephor gerousia macedon synedrion koinon military wars athenian military scythian archers antigonid macedonian army army of macedon ballista cretan archers hellenistic armies hippeis hoplite hetairoi macedonian phalanx military of mycenaean greece phalanx peltast pezhetairos sarissa sacred band of thebes sciritae seleucid army spartan army strategos toxotai xiphos xyston people list of ancient greeks rulers kings of argos archons of athens kings of athens kings of commagene diadochi kings of macedonia kings of paionia attalid kings of pergamon kings of pontus ptolemaic dynasty seleucid dynasty kings of sparta tyrants of syracuse artists scholars astronomers geographers historians mathematicians philosophers playwrights poets seven sages writers philosophers anaxagoras anaximander anaximenes antisthenes aristippus aristotle democritus diogenes of sinope empedocles epicurus gorgias heraclitus hypatia leucippus parmenides plato protagoras pythagoras socrates thales zeno authors aeschylus aesop alcaeus archilochus aristophanes bacchylides diodorus siculus euripides herodotus hesiod hipponax homer ibycus lucian menander mimnermus panyassis philocles pindar plutarch polybius sappho simonides sophocles stesichorus theognis thucydides timocreon tyrtaeus xenophon others athenian statesmen lawgivers olympic victors tyrants by culture ancient greek tribes thracian greeks ancient macedonians society culture society agriculture animals calendar clothing coinage cuisine economy education emporium euergetism festivals folklore homosexuality law olympic games pederasty philosophy prostitution religion slavery warfare wedding customs wine arts and science architecture greek revival architecture astronomy literature mathematics medicine music musical system pottery sculpture technology theatre religion funeral and burial practices mythology deities temple twelve olympians underworld sacred places eleusis delphi delos dion dodona mount olympus olympia structures athenian treasury lion gate long walls philippeion theatre of dionysus tunnel of eupalinos temples aphaea artemis athena nike erechtheion hephaestus hera olympia parthenon samothrace zeus olympia language proto greek mycenaean homeric dialects aeolic arcadocypriot attic doric epirote ionic locrian macedonian pamphylian koine writing linear a linear b cypriot syllabary greek alphabet greek numerals attic numerals greek colonisation magna graecia mainland italy alision ankṓn brentesion caulonia chone croton cumae elea heraclea lucania hipponion hydrus krimisa laüs locri medma metauros metapontion neápolis pandosia lucania poseidonia pixous rhegion scylletium siris sybaris sybaris on the traeis taras terina thurii sicily akragas akrai akrillai apollonia calacte casmenae catana gela helorus henna heraclea minoa himera hybla gereatis hybla heraea kamarina leontinoi megara hyblaea messana naxos segesta selinous syracuse tauromenion thermae tyndaris aeolian islands didy...