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orks cited 13 further reading 14 external links toggle the table of contents shamanism 99 languages afrikaans العربية مصرى অসমীয়া asturianu azərbaycanca تۆرکجه башҡортса basa bali žemaitėška беларуская тарашкевіца беларуская български বাংলা català کوردی čeština cymraeg dansk deutsch ελληνικά esperanto español eesti euskara فارسی suomi français frysk gaeilge kriyòl gwiyannen galego avañe ẽ עברית हिन्दी hrvatski magyar հայերեն bahasa indonesia italiano ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ inuktitut 日本語 ქართული қазақша 한국어 кыргызча latina lëtzebuergesch limburgs lietuvių latviešu мокшень malagasy македонски монгол bahasa melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ नेपाली nederlands norsk nynorsk norsk bokmål occitan livvinkarjala ਪੰਜਾਬੀ polski پښتو português runa simi română русский scots srpskohrvatski српскохрватски simple english slovenčina slovenščina shqip српски srpski svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย türkmençe tagalog toki pona türkçe татарча tatarça тыва дыл ئۇيغۇرچە uyghurche українська اردو oʻzbekcha ўзбекча tiếng việt winaray 吴语 მარგალური ייִדיש 閩南語 bân lâm gí 粵語 中文 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikimedia commons wikiquote wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia religious practice not to be confused with shramanism shaman and shamans redirect here for other uses see shaman disambiguation this article s lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article october 2024 learn how and when to remove this message russian postcard based on a photo taken in 1908 by s i borisov showing a female shaman of probable khakas ethnicity 1 2 3 part of a series on anthropology of religion basic concepts afterlife animism augury communitas comparative religion divination divine language evolutionary origin of religion fetishism great spirit henotheism initiation laying on of hands liminality numinous magic mana monotheism nympholepsy oracle pilgrimage polytheism rite of passage ritual sacred language sacredness profane blasphemy sacrilege sacred site shamanism soul dualism superstition theories about religion totem transtheism veneration of the dead case studies magic coral gardens and their magic treatise on the apparitions of spirits and on vampires or revenants neo paganism ritual angakkuq babaylan bobohizan bomoh bora dukun miko jhākri pawang slametan wu revitalization movements cargo cult ghost dance handsome lake related articles the elementary forms of the religious life purity and danger myth and ritual archaeology of religion and ritual poles in mythology lived religion elite religion major theorists akbar s ahmed talal asad joseph campbell mary douglas 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navajo naftalan oil prophetic medicine shamanism shiatsu siddha sri lankan sowa rigpa thai massage unani vietnamese yorùbá alternative diagnoses adrenal fatigue aerotoxic syndrome candida hypersensitivity chronic lyme disease electromagnetic hypersensitivity heavy legs leaky gut syndrome multiple chemical sensitivity vertebral subluxation wilson s temperature syndrome v t e shamanism is a spiritual practice that involves a practitioner shaman interacting with the spirit world through altered states of consciousness such as trance 4 5 the goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritual energies into the physical world for the purpose of healing divination or to aid human beings in some other way 4 6 beliefs and practices categorized as shamanic have attracted the interest of scholars from a variety of disciplines including anthropologists archeologists historians religious studies scholars philosophers and psychologists hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject have been produced with a peer reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism terminology edit etymology edit the earliest known depiction of a siberian shaman by the dutch explorer nicolaes witsen 17th century witsen called him a priest of the devil and drew clawed feet for the supposed demonic qualities 7 the modern english word shamanism derives from the russian word шаман šamán which itself comes from the word samān from a tungusic language 8 possibly from the southwestern dialect of the evenki spoken by the sym evenki peoples 9 or from the manchu language 10 the etymology of the word is sometimes connected to the tungus root sā meaning to know 11 12 however finnish ethnolinguist juha janhunen questions this connection on linguistic grounds the possibility cannot be completely rejected but neither should it be accepted without reservation since the assumed derivational relationship is phonologically irregular note especially the vowel quantities 13 mircea eliade noted that the sanskrit word श्रमण śramaṇa designating a wandering monastic or holy figure has spread to many central asian languages along with buddhism and could be the ultimate origin of the word shaman 14 the word has been reported in gandhari as ṣamana in tocharian a as ṣāmaṃ in tocharian b as ṣamāne and in chinese as 沙門 shāmén 15 the term was adopted by russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in siberia it is found in the memoirs of the exiled russian churchman avvakum 16 it was brought to western europe twenty years later by the dutch statesman nicolaes witsen who reported his stay and journeys among the tungusic and samoyedic speaking indigenous peoples of siberia in his book noord en oost tataryen 1692 7 adam brand a merchant from lübeck published in 1698 his account of a russian embassy to china a translation of his book published the same year introduced the word shaman to english speakers 17 anthropologist and archeologist silvia tomášková argued that by the mid 1600s many europeans applied the arabic term shaitan meaning devil to the non christian practices and beliefs of indigenous peoples beyond the ural mountains 18 alongside the term shaman which she suggests was equally non indigenous but some mongrelized but originally slavic foreignism created by europeans a female shaman is sometimes called a shamanka which is not an actual tungus term but simply shaman plus the russian suffix ka for feminine nouns 19 definitions edit there is no single agreed upon definition for the word shamanism among anthropologists anthropologist manvir singh argues that the most justifiable definition includes three basic features entering non ordinary states engaging with unseen realities and providing services like healing and divination 4 20 the english historian ronald hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century there were four separate definitions of the term which appeared to be in use 21 to refer to anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness those who contact a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness at the behest of others in an attempt to distinguish shamans from other magico religious specialists who are believed to contact spirits such as mediums witch doctors spiritual healers or prophets this definition suggests that shamans undertake some particular technique not used by the others however scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be shamanism referring to the indigenous religions of siberia and neighboring parts of asia according to the oxford english dictionary a shaman ˈ ʃ ɑː m ə n shah mən ˈ ʃ æ m ə n sham ən or ˈ ʃ eɪ m ə n shay mən 22 is someone who is regarded as having access to and influence in the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits who typically enters into a trance state during a ritual and practices divination and healing 6 22 the word shaman probably originates from the tungusic evenki language of north asia according to juha janhunen the word is attested in all of the tungusic idioms such as negidal lamut udehe orochi nanai ilcha orok manchu and ulcha and nothing seems to contradict the assumption that the meaning shaman also derives from proto tungusic and may have roots that extend back in time at least two millennia 23 the term shamanism was first applied by western anthropologists as outside observers of the ancient religion of indigenous siberians as well as those of the neighbouring tungusic and samoyedic speaking peoples upon observing more religious traditions around the world some western anthropologists began to also use the term in a very broad sense the term was used to describe unrelated religious practices found within the ethnic religions of other parts of asia africa australasia and even completely unrelated parts of the americas as they believed these practices to be similar to one another 24 while the term has been incorrectly applied by cultural outsiders to many indigenous spiritual practices the words shaman and shamanism do not accurately describe the variety and complexity that is indigenous spirituality each nation and tribe has its own way of life and uses terms in their own languages 25 mircea eliade writes a first definition of this complex phenomenon and perhaps the least hazardous will be shamanism technique of religious ecstasy 26 shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds shamans are said to treat ailments and illnesses by mending the soul alleviating traumas affecting the soul or spirit are believed to restore the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness shamans also say that they enter supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community or visit other worlds or dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements shamans operate primarily within the spiritual world which they believe in turn affects the human world the restoration of balance is said to result in the elimination of the ailment 26 criticism of the term edit further information medicine man a tableau presenting figures from various cultures described as shamans in western academic literature the anthropologist alice kehoe criticizes the term shaman in her book shamans and religion an anthropological exploration in critical thinking part of this criticism involves the notion of cultural appropriation 27 this includes criticism of new age and modern western forms of shamanism which according to kehoe misrepresent or dilute indigenous practices kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such as the noble savage kehoe is highly critical of mircea eliade s work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research to kehoe citing practices such as drumming trance chanting entheogen and hallucinogen use sp...