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coalition army of spanish armed forces under cortés and tlaxcalan indian warriors led by indian commander chichimecatecuhtli captured the aztec emperor cuauhtémoc and the aztec capital tenochtitlan the fall of tenochtitlan marks the establishment of new spain as part of the spanish empire with its capital being mexico city built on the ruins of the former empire s capital the conquest had profound impact beginning spanish rule in mesoamerica the wide expansion of spanish culture and the establishment of a new social hierarchy in latin america dominated by the spanish conquerors and their descendants significant events in the conquest of mesoamerica edit following a 1518 expedition to yucatán led by juan de grijalva in 1519 hernán cortés set sail on an expedition entrada to what is today mexico 10 cortés made alliances with tributary city states of the aztec empire altepetl as well as with their political rivals particularly the tlaxcaltecs and the tetzcocans a former partner in the aztec triple alliance other city states also joined including cempoala and huejotzingo as well as polities bordering lake texcoco the inland lake system of the valley of mexico particularly important to the spanish success was a multilingual nahua mayan and spanish speaking woman enslaved by the mayas known to the spanish conquistadors as doña marina and later as la malinche eight months of battles and negotiations overcame the resistance of the aztec emperor moctezuma ii also spelled motecuhzoma to the entrance of the spanish cortés arrived in tenochtitlan on 8 november 1519 where his men and indigenous allies took up residence when news reached cortés of the death of several of his men during the aztec attack on the totonacs in veracruz cortés claims that he took moctezuma captive capturing the cacique or indigenous ruler was a common tactic for the spanish in their expansion in the caribbean but modern scholars are skeptical that cortés took moctezuma captive at this time despite his legal claims of capturing the ruler critical analysis of spanish personal writings suggest moctezuma was not taken until later 11 at this time diego velázquez de cuéllar spanish governor of cuba tried to recall cortés in favor of a new expedition led by pánfilo de narváez cortés left tenochtitlan to defend his own expedition leaving pedro de alvarado in charge of tenochtitlan cortés led a small army to the coast and attacked narváez at night after defeating narváez s fleet cortés won over most of the crew to his side promising them great riches upon returning to tenochtitlan with his enlarged force cortés received news from alvarado that the aztec had risen against the spanish garrison during a religious celebration 12 and alvarado had ordered his army to massacre the unarmed crowd under heavy attack by the aztecs cortés decided to escape during the following noche triste sorrowful night about 400 spaniards 4000 native allies and many horses were killed before reaching the mainland 12 moctezuma was killed although sources disagree on who killed him 13 by one account moctezuma now seen by his people as a puppet of the spaniards was killed by a hurled stone as he attempted to calm the outraged crowd 14 an indigenous account says he was killed by the spanish 15 the spanish tlaxcalans and reinforcements returned a year later on 13 august 1521 to a civilization weakened by famine and smallpox with little remaining ability to resist 16 the spaniards victory is attributed to their help from indigenous allies and their more advanced technology in the heat of battle cavalry was the arm of decision in the conquest and the key ingredient in the spanish forces 17 however the role of smallpox is often underestimated according to hassig it is true that cannons guns crossbows steel blades horses and war dogs were advanced on the aztecs weaponry but the advantage these gave a few hundred spanish soldiers was not overwhelming 18 in the words of restall spanish weapons were useful for breaking the offensive lines of waves of indigenous warriors but this was no formula for conquest rather it was a formula for survival until spanish and indigenous reinforcements arrived 19 the integration of the allies from tlaxcala and texcoco into the spanish army played a crucial role in the conquest these alliances not only expanded the spanish ranks but also provided essential guidance on local geography and effective tactics against aztec defenses informing the timing of the campaign and exploiting the beliefs of both groups at the same time the alienness of the spaniards their ignorance of the empire s power structure made them unpredictable to their enemies a direct attack on a city as mighty as tenochtitlan was unlikely and unexpected the aztecs never thought an attacking army would come unannounced 18 many of those on the cortés expedition of 1519 had never seen combat before including cortés a whole generation of spaniards later participated in expeditions in the caribbean and tierra firme central america learning strategy and tactics nevertheless the spanish conquest of mexico had antecedents in earlier practices 20 timeline edit 1428 creation of the triple alliance of tenochtitlan texcoco and tlacopan 1492 93 columbus reaches the caribbean start of permanent spanish settlements 1493 1515 spanish exploration conquest enslavement and settlement in the caribbean and the spanish main 1502 moctezuma ii elected huey tlatoani emperor literally great speaker of the aztec triple alliance 1503 09 moctezuma s coronation conquests 1504 hernan cortés arrives in the caribbean 1511 spanish viceroy in the caribbean appoints diego velázquez to conquer and govern cuba 1515 texcocan monarch nezahualpilli dies cacamatzin succeeds to the throne the rebellion of ixtlilxochitl 1517 expedition of francisco hernández de córdoba to the yucatán coast 1517 city of cholollan secedes from tlaxcalteca alliance becomes a tributary state of the aztec triple alliance 1518 expedition of juan de grijalva to the yucatán and gulf coasts appointment of cortés to lead a third exploratory expedition 1519 cortés and his counselor the nahua woman la malinche meet moctezuma in tenochtitlan 8 november 1519 10 february cortés expedition leaves cuba taking hernández de córdoba s route in the process cortés ignores velásquez s cancellation of the expedition early 1519 gerónimo de aguilar shipwrecked spaniard bilingual in yoko ochoko joins cortés the death of moctezuma depicted in the florentine codex 24 march leaders of potoncan sue spaniards for peace and gift the spaniards 20 slave women one of the enslaved nahua woman known as la malinche doña marina malintze and malintzin is multilingual and will serve as one of the main translators for the expedition 21 21 april expedition lands in the gulf coast near san juan de ullúa 22 early june cortés establishes the colony of villa rica de la vera cruz and relocates the company to a beach near the settlement of quiahuiztlan 23 afterward the spaniards travel to cempoala 22 and formalize an alliance with xicomecoatl also known as the fat chief and cacique gordo 24 the leader of cempoala at this time cempoala is the capital of the totonac confederacy july august cortés soldiers desecrate cempoala 25 16 august spaniards and totonac allies embark on march toward the valley of tenochtitlan passing citlatapetl and many other notable geographic landmarks like cofre de perote 26 31 august tlaxcalteca attack spaniards after entering the territory of tlaxcallan they succeed in killing two horsemen 27 september tlaxcalteca assault the spanish camp by day and the spanish respond by raiding unarmed tlaxcalteca towns and villages by night tlaxcallan brokers a peace after 18 punishing days of war by which point the spaniards had lost half their cavalry and 1 5 their men 28 29 19 october march to cholula conquistadors massacre unarmed cholulans then spanish tlaxcala combine forces to sack cholollan and replace cholulan political leadership with tlaxcallan favoring nobles the massacre broke out for disputed reasons perhaps to quash an impending cholulan attack 30 or to fulfill a tlaxcalteca plan to both exact revenge on cholollan for its secession and to test their new spanish allies 19 8 november 1519 meeting of cortés and moctezuma 1520 smallpox depicted in book xii on the conquest of mexico in the florentine codex april or may pánfilo de narváez arrives on the gulf coast sent by governor velázquez to rein in cortés mid may pedro de alvarado massacres aztec elites celebrating the festival of toxcatl late may cortés forces attack narvárez s forces at cempoala incorporation of those spaniards into cortés s forces 24 june spanish forces return to tenochtitlan late june uprising in tenochtitlan the death of moctezuma in unclear circumstances perhaps killed by the spaniards perhaps by his own people deaths of other leaders of the triple alliance 30 june la noche triste evacuation of spanish tlaxcalteca allied forces from tenochtitlan deaths of perhaps 1 000 spaniards and 1 000 tlaxcalans 7 july battle of otumba aztec forces attack the spanish tlaxcalteca forces at otumba 11 or 12 july retreat to tlaxcala 1 august spanish punitive expedition in tepeaca in reprisal for the murder of spaniards by its inhabitants 31 mid september coronation of cuitlahuac as moctezuma s successor mid october to mid december smallpox epidemic death of cuitlahuac on 4 december perhaps of smallpox late december spanish tlaxcaltec forces return to the valley of mexico join with texcoca forces of ixtlilxochitl 1521 the capture of cuauhtemoc 17th century oil on canvas late january cuauhtemoc elected huey tlatoani of tenochtitlan february combined spanish tlaxcalteca texcoca forces attack xaltocan and tlacopan texcoco becomes the base of operations for the campaign against tenochtitlan early april attacks against yautepec and cuernavaca following by sacking mid april combined forces defeated by the xochimilcans tenochtitlan s ally late april construction of 13 shallow bottomed brigantines by tlaxcalteca laborers under spanish supervision mounted with cannon launched into lake texcoco allowing spanish control of the inland sea 10 may start of the siege of tenochtitlan potable water from chapultepec cut off 30 june defeat of spanish tlaxcalteca forces on a causeway capture and ritual sacrifice of the spaniards and their horses in tenochtitlan july spanish ships land at veracruz with large numbers of spaniards munitions and horses 20 25 july battle for tenochtitlan 1 august spanish tlaxcalan texcocan forces enter the plaza mayor last stand of the aztec defenders 13 august surrender of aztec defenders capture of cuauhtemoc 13 17 august wholesale sacking and violence against the survivors in tenochtitlan 1522 october charles v holy roman emperor names cortés captain general of new spain the spanish name for central mexico november death of cortés s wife catalina suárez in coyoacan where cortés was resident while the new capital mexico city was constructed on the ruins of tenochtitlan cortés s second letter to the crown is published in seville spain 1524 arrival of the first twelve franciscan missionaries to mexico beginning of the spiritual conquest to convert the indigenous populations to christianity 32 conqueror cristóbal de olid s expedition to honduras renounces cortés authority cortés expedition to honduras with the captive cuauhtemoc 1525 february execution of the three rulers of the former triple alliance including cuauhtemoc don juan velázquez tlacotzin former viceroy cihuacoatl appointed governor of the indigenous sector of mexico city 1525 1530 spanish conquest of guatemala 1527 1547 spanish conquest of chiapas sources for the conquest of mesoamerica edit bernal díaz del castillo s true history of the conquest of new spain the conquest of mexico the initial destruction of the great pre columbian civilizations is a significant event in world history the conquest was well documented by a variety of sources with differing points of view including indigenous accounts by both allies and opponents accounts by the spanish conquerors exist from the first landfall at veracruz mexico on good friday 22 april 1519 to the final victory over the mexica in tenochtitlan on 13 august 1521 notably the accounts of the conquest spanish and indigenous alike have biases and exaggerations some though not all spanish accounts downplay the support of their indigenous allies conquerors accounts exaggerate individual contributions to the conquest at the expense of their comrades while indigenous allies accounts stress their loyalty and importance to victory for the spanish these accounts are similar to spanish conquerors accounts contained in petitions for rewards known as benemérito petitions 33 two lengthy accounts from the defeated indigenous viewpoint were created under the direction of spanish friars franciscan bernardino de sahagún and dominican diego durán using indigenous informants 34 because nahuatl did not have a full alphabet the majority of extant indigenous sources are recollections of nahuatl speakers who were subsequently introduced to latin characters after the arrival of the spanish gingerish 35 identifies the annals of tlatelolco 1524 1528 as one of the oldest recorded manuscripts in nahuatl written presumably by a native who must have learned the use of latin characters and alphabet within three or four years of the conquest lockhart 36 however argues for a later post 1540 date for this manuscript and indeed the majority of indigenous source material was recorded a generation or more after the events through interaction with and under influence of spanish priests as noted in 35 no pure nahuatl text exists with the exception of a few pre cortesian pictographic codices every written nahuatl text was recorded after 1521 either directly by a christian priest by students who worked directly under priestly supervision or by former students who had studied in christian schools long enough to understand the necessity of the new religion the written language was a personal possession of the noble and priestly class the first spanish account of the conquest was written by lead conqueror hernán cortés who sent a series of letters to the spanish monarch charles v giving a contemporary account of the conquest from his point of view in which he justified his actions these were almost immediately published in spain and later in other parts of europe much later spanish conqueror bernal díaz del castillo a well seasoned participant in the conquest of central mexico wrote what he called the true history of the conquest of new spain countering the account by cortés s official biographer francisco lópez de gómara bernal díaz s account had begun as a benemérito petition for rewards but he expanded it to encompass a full history of his earlier expeditions in the caribbean and tierra firme and the conquest of the aztec a number of lower rank spanish...