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ingo de soto 1494 1560 melchor cano 1509 1560 diego de covarrubias y leyva 1512 1577 fernando vázquez de menchaca 1512 1569 bartolomé de medina 1527 1580 domingo báñez 1528 1604 and tomás de mercado 1530 1576 as well as the franciscan alfonso de castro 1495 1558 other important representatives from the dominicans were bartolomé de las casas 1484 1566 and juan ginés de sepúlveda 1490 1573 francisco de vitoria edit main article francisco de vitoria statue of francisco de vitoria at san esteban salamanca francisco de vitoria was born in burgos of a father who had assumed the name of his native city and of a mother descended from converted jews the young vitoria arrived in paris in 1507 to study at the dominican studium of saint jacques there the flemish nominalist turned thomist peter crockaert was effecting the revival of thomistic scholasticism and entrusted vitoria in 1512 with editing the secunda secundae of thomas aquinas s summa theologica vitoria edited other works of moral and spiritual theology in paris where he received a doctorate in the faculty of theology in 1522 and taught in 1522 23 assigned to teach at the dominican studium in valladolid in 1523 he was elected in 1526 by the students of the university of salamanca to the prima chair in theology which he held until his death on 12 august 1546 in his third year at salamanca vitoria abandoned the centuries long tradition of teaching from the sentences of peter lombard and began to comment instead on the works of thomas this innovation was widely imitated in spain and elsewhere and had important consequences for the future teaching of theology in catholic faculties and for the theological approaches of the council of trent among his many pupils were domingo de soto melchor cano bartolomé de medina tomás de chaves and domingo báñez vitoria s political thought strongly influenced the work of robert bellarmine and francisco suárez although vitoria published nothing during his tenure at salamanca his students undertook this work after his death a manual of sacramental theology based on his notes was reprinted over eighty times before 1612 his relectiones theologicae appeared posthumously in 1557 in lyon and were reprinted eight times in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in spain italy germany and the low countries the relección was an annual formal lecture to the whole university in which vitoria summed up his lectures given the previous year he treated such questions as civil and ecclesiastical authority homicide charity marriage magic usury and the authority of popes and general councils in 1539 and 1540 he turned his attention to the moral and legal problems posed by the spanish colonization of the americas his treatises de indis recenter inventis and de iure belli hispanorum in barbaros influenced subsequent imperial legislation especially the new law for the indies in 1542 which sought to reduce the brutality of exploitation of the american native peoples in de indis vitoria upheld the natural rights of the aborigines as legal possessors of their property and governors of their lands but he allowed that a more enlightened state especially a christian one like spain might assume government of a backward people as the indians appeared to be provided this government was for the welfare of the latter and not merely for the profit of the former the rights of missionaries to preach the gospel were to take precedence and the emperor s duties to protect converts was paramount thus while vitoria s teaching broke new ground in the matter of native rights it failed to block possible avenues of abuse his doctrine is thus more ambivalent than that of his fellow dominican bartolomé de las casas who is the more thoroughgoing champion of the aborigines vitoria s use of thomas aquinas who had drawn on the political thought of aristotle presumed the natural rights of the state although god is its ultimate cause the state enjoys full power and authority over the things necessary to its continuance and to the well being of its citizens who alone may determine the mode of power and its delegation to individuals the same natural law likewise governs international relations the world as a whole totus orbis is analogous to a single state and can thus create a supranational authority to determine laws appropriate to and binding on all nations in the twentieth century these theories have earned vitoria the title father of international law and have made him the patron of several national and international associations vitoria maintained a correspondence with several humanists juan luis vives assured erasmus of vitoria s admiration during the inquisition into erasmus s works held at valladolid 1527 however vitoria took a middle position opposing a general censure of erasmus but holding that some of his positions were dangerous and even heretical domingo de soto edit main article domingo de soto domingo de soto studied at the universities of alcalá and paris and in 1524 entered the dominican order in 1532 he became professor of theology at salamanca in 1545 he was sent at the behest of charles v to the council of trent and he subsequently served as the emperor s confessor in 1552 he succeeded melchor cano as the principal theologian at salamanca his most important work was de iustitia et de iure 1553 54 in which he proposed that reason rationis ordinatio was the mechanism by which laws should be evaluated he also took the view that international law jus gentium was a part of the law of specific communities later termed positive law rather than a moral or natural law soto s erudition which was distinguished even by the standards of those in attendance at the council of trent ranged far beyond theology and law in his commentaries on aristotle 1545 he outlined a theory of the trajectory of missiles that anticipated and may have influenced galileo s law of fall melchor cano edit main articles melchor cano and loci theologici melchor cano melchor cano studied at the university of salamanca 1527 1531 and became the favorite disciple of francisco de vitoria cano taught at the dominican college of saint gregory in valladolid 1533 1542 held the principal chair of theology at the university of alcalá 1542 1546 and succeeded his mentor vitoria at the university of salamanca 1546 1552 at trent he led the council away from compromise with protestantism and toward its reaffirmation of the real presence of christ in the eucharist transubstantiation the sacrificial dimension of the mass and private auricular confession cano s conservatism also led him to distrust the new order founded by ignatius of loyola 1491 1556 the society of jesus which he considered a sectarian movement with heretical leanings ever faithful to his mentor vitoria who was one of the principal defenders of the rights of the indigenous peoples of the americas against their spanish conquerors cano became a formidable opponent of those who considered the indians inferior beings and natural slaves cano s chief opponent in this controversy was juan ginés de sepúlveda chaplain and official chronicler to emperor charles v when sepúlveda defended the right of charles to wage war upon and enslave the indians in democrates secundus sive de justis causis belli apud indos 1544 cano ensured the book s condemnation by the faculties of salamanca and alcalá moreover sepúlveda s defeat at the hands of cano and other dominicans in a debate held in valladolid in 1550 led to the enactment of laws protecting the rights of native peoples in the new world awarded the bishopric of the canary islands in 1552 he resigned from teaching at salamanca nonetheless cano s close involvement with the royal court prevented him from taking up residence there unwilling to serve as an absentee bishop he resigned this post in 1554 his final years were filled with controversy in 1556 king philip ii went to war against pope paul iv who had allied himself with france and cano defended philip s right to contend against the pope as a temporal ruler at rome cano was accused of challenging pontifical authority and though he was twice elected provincial of castile by his fellow dominicans pope paul iv refused to confirm him cano s most enduring legacy is his contribution to theological methodology cano and other representatives of the school of salamanca sought to enlarge the scope of theology by turning away from the abstract dialectics of scholasticism and by placing a greater emphasis on ethical concerns like all thomists cano defended the capacity of humans to understand or even intuit the truths revealed by god and he engaged in an exegesis of the ius naturale or law of nature cano s de locis theologicis published posthumously in 1563 owes much to rodolphus agricola s de inventione dialectica 1548 as interpreted by francisco de vitoria this opus outlines ten sources or loci of theology aimed squarely against the paradigm of sola scriptura cano s theological method sought religious truth in a variety of sources which included not just the bible but also oral tradition the pronouncements of councils bishops and popes the writings of the fathers and even the teachings of pagan philosophers and the testimony of human history as interpreted by natural reason cano s method was enthusiastically embraced by post tridentine theologians and was taken to greater heights by some of his jesuit followers in the school of salamanca four centuries later such influential thinkers as joseph maréchal and karl rahner continued to build on its foundations the spirit of this positive or fundamental theology as it came to be known was neatly summarized by cano in his de locis whoever constructs a theology unlinked to reason and measures dogmas through scripture alone does nothing for theology or for the faith or for humanity luis de molina edit main articles luis de molina and molinism luis de molina born in cuenca in castile molina was received into the society of jesus at alcalá in 1553 in portugal after studies at coimbra he taught theology at évora from 1568 until 1583 when he was freed from teaching to prepare his lecture materials for publication molina began a commentary on part i of thomas aquinas s summa theologiae but his manuscript was so extensive on questions concerning divine foreknowledge providence and predestination all in relation to free choice that he lifted his treatment of these and brought out a separate work the concordia liberi arbitrii cum gratiæ donis divina præscientia providentia prædestinatione et reprobatione 1588 his two volume commentary on part 1 of the summa treated natural knowledge of god the trinity creation and the angels 1592 but his main project after 1590 was de iustitia et iure treating the major questions of personal and socioeconomic morality he oversaw the publication of the first three volumes while four others came out posthumously 1609 in 1600 he was called to teach moral theology in madrid but he died there shortly after arriving molina was criticized especially by dominicans for making the graced free decisions of the will a cause or precondition of divine predestination to eternal salvation molina distinguished in god various types of foreknowledge by one of which called scientia media god knows the outcome of human choices in the hypothesis of the creation of a certain order of reality god s decree predestining some persons to salvation is then logically subsequent to their foreseen meritorious actions against this view the thomists of salamanca headed by domingo báñez denied such intermediate divine knowledge and held that predestination is prior to foreseen human meritorious actions the dispute was argued but not resolved before a papal tribunal from 1597 to 1607 with both theories in the end being permitted francisco suárez edit main article francisco suárez bust of francisco suárez in his native granada francisco suárez was born at granada spain his father a successful lawyer early destined him for the priesthood he entered the jesuits in 1564 after a weak beginning he soon became a brilliant student at the university of salamanca which was then a center of revived thomism upon completing his jesuit training he taught philosophy briefly at segovia 1571 1574 he then devoted six years to teaching theology at various jesuit colleges the lecture notes from these courses became a quarry for his later publications in 1580 he was called to teach theology at the prestigious jesuit roman college where he lectured on the summa theologiae of thomas aquinas but because of failing health he returned to spain and occupied a chair of theology at alcalá 1585 1593 his last years at alcalá de henares were marked by a bitter rivalry with his fellow jesuit the more flamboyant gabriel vázquez so suárez was happy to move to salamanca where he taught and wrote until 1597 he spent the last period of his life 1597 1617 at the university of coimbra at the behest of philip ii who wanted to enhance the prestige of the portuguese university suárez s personal life was that of a pious priest and largely uneventful his health was never robust and his teaching duties cut into the time he would have preferred to devote to preparing his manuscripts for publication many were left only partially revised at his death and were published posthumously others most notably his commentaries on aristotle were never published the 1856 paris edition of his works ran to twenty eight volumes suárez s main philosophical works were his treatise on the soul lyon 1621 and especially his disputationes metaphysicae salamanca 1597 which enjoyed great popularity eighteen editions in the century after its publication not only in catholic countries but also in protestant germany where it contributed to the renewed scholastic reshaping of philosophy and theology during the age of protestant orthodoxy while working within the regnant aristotelian tradition suárez s philosophical works develop their own order of presentation written in humanistic latin his works are systematic and clear but often prolix they draw on a wide reading in philosophers from plato to his own day his book on metaphysics is noteworthy for rejecting the thomistic real distinction between essence and existence the most important of suárez s theological works were his extensive commentaries on the summa theologiae of thomas aquinas especially the tracts de deo uno et trino lisbon 1606 de angelis lyon 1620 de opere sex dierum lyon 1621 and de legibus coimbra 1612 the last of these tracts has been much studied in the twentieth century and along with the works of francisco de vitoria and hugo grotius it laid the intellectual foundations of international law in choosing to write on the summa rather than peter lombard s sententiae suárez was following the precedent set a half century earlier by francisco de vitoria at salamanca and thereby contributed to making thomism central to revived scholasticism even though he oft...