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the (426), and (151), assam (75), ahom (75), sukaphaa (59), his (59), that (51), from (47), tai (46), were (35), buranji (34), with (33), mong (33), was (29), this (28), mao (28), #kingdom (26), their (24), for (22), dates (21), daniels (21), saikia (21), sukapha (19), history (18), century (18), 1228 (18), chronology (18), also (17), gogoi (17), years (17), edit (15), phukan (15), into (15), which (14), according (14), who (14), after (14), möng (14), during (14), migration (14), about (13), date (13), 2023 (13), not (13), later (13), early (13), 1997 (12), 1992 (12), ruler (12), nagas (12), people (11), river (11), they (11), through (11), polity (11), chinese (11), script (11), records (10), reign (10), pha (10), first (10), sources (10), established (10), 14th (10), shan (9), account (9), chronicle (9), those (9), these (9), villages (9), flesh (9), place (9), valley (9), settlement (9), name (9), chao (9), day (9), wikipedia (8), indian (8), journal (8), chronicles (8), long (8), 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interregnum 1376 1380 7 tyao khamti 1380 1389 interregnum 1389 1397 8 sudangphaa 1397 1407 9 sujangphaa 1407 1422 10 suphakphaa 1422 1439 11 susenphaa 1439 1488 12 suhenphaa 1488 1493 13 supimphaa 1493 1497 14 suhungmung 1497 1539 15 suklenmung 1539 1552 16 sukhaamphaa 1552 1603 17 susenghphaa 1603 1641 18 suramphaa 1641 1644 19 sutingphaa 1644 1648 20 sutamla 1648 1663 21 supangmung 1663 1670 22 sunyatphaa 1670 1672 23 suklamphaa 1672 1674 24 suhung 1674 1675 25 gobar roja 1675 1675 26 sujinphaa 1675 1677 27 sudoiphaa 1677 1679 28 sulikphaa 1679 1681 29 supatphaa 1681 1696 30 sukhrungphaa 1696 1714 31 sutanphaa 1714 1744 32 sunenphaa 1744 1751 33 suremphaa 1751 1769 34 sunyeophaa 1769 1780 35 suhitpangphaa 1780 1795 36 suklingphaa 1795 1811 37 sudingphaa 1811 1818 38 purandar singha 1818 1819 39 sudingphaa 1819 1821 40 jogeswar singha 1821 1822 41 purandar singha 1833 1838 v t e sukaphaa also siu ka pha 3 was a tai ruler traditionally credited with founding the ahom kingdom in medieval assam he is identified as a tai prince from möng mao 4 and conventional chronologies date his entry into the brahmaputra valley to 1228 ce 5 the chronology of his migration reign and early settlement however is disputed buranji accounts preserve conflicting dates while later reconstructions have proposed several alternative dates generally placing the migration in the mid 14th century 6 7 the kingdom associated with his foundation existed until 1826 and came to incorporate large parts of modern assam in reverence to his position in assam s history the honorific chaolung is associated with his name chao lord lung great in 1996 the assam government decreed his annual remembrance on 2 december as sukaphaa divas or asom divas assam day to commemorate his advent and entry into assam su ka pha sammanay khetra statue assam traditional genealogy edit the details of sukaphaa s ancestry and early life available from different chronicles both ahom and non ahom are full of contradictions according to phukan 1992 who has tried to hold up a consistent account sukaphaa was born to chao chang nyeu alias phu chang khang and nang mong blak kham sen in the tai state of möng mao also called mao lung with the capital at kieng sen close to present day ruili in yunnan china 8 chao chang nyeu was a prince from mong ri mong ram who had travelled to mong mao possibly on an expedition 9 mong mao was then ruled by chao tai pung chao chang nyeu was later befriended by pao meo pung the son of the ruler who gave his sister blak kham sen in marriage as per this account sukaphaa was born of this union not later than 1189 ce and was brought up by his maternal grandparents 10 the same account states that pao meo pung who eventually ruled mong mao had no male heir and sukaphaa his nephew was nominated to succeed him a son born late to pao meo pung s queen ended sukaphaa s claim to the throne of mong mao journey into assam edit the following route and dates belong to the conventional buranji based reconstruction in this account sukaphaa left mong mao in 1215 11 he was accompanied by three queens two sons and a daughter chiefs from five other dependent mongs 12 members of the priestly class and soldiers a total contingent of 9 000 some commoners are recorded as having joined this core group on the way the migrating group also expanded by capturing people along the route according to saikia these captives included chutia morans and barahis 13 14 sukaphaa had with him 300 horses fitted with saddles and bridles and two elephants heavy arms were transported along a different route 15 sukaphaa followed an older known route from yunnan to assam that passed through myitkyina mogaung and the upper irrawaddy river valley on his way he stopped at various places and crossed the khamjang river to reach the nangyang lake in 1227 here he subjugated the nagas very ferociously and established a mong according to the buranjis sukaphaa s passage through the patkai involved repeated attacks on naga villages several villages were forced to surrender or were abandoned after his forces attacked them while resistant nagas were subjected to severe exemplary punishments including being forced to eat the flesh of their own relatives a he left one kan khrang mong there to guard the passage back and proceeded to cross the patkai hills at the pangsau pass and reached namrup in the brahmaputra valley in december 1228 in this reconstruction the journey from mong mao to namrup took about thirteen years and 1228 is treated as the year in which the ahom kingdom was established disputed chronology of migration edit the conventional chronology places sukaphaa s departure from möng mao in 1215 and his arrival at khamjang in 1228 20 the chronological basis of these dates however is disputed 21 22 daniels 2012 notes that although the ahoms are reputed to have migrated to assam during the thirteenth century we have no contemporary source that can elucidate their early history 23 the textual basis of the early migration narrative is also uncertain although buranji tradition attributes the beginning of official chronicle writing to sukaphaa 24 research on the tai ahom script suggests that the written chronicle tradition took shape much later the oldest surviving ahom text the snake pillar inscription dates to the reign of suhungmung 1497 1539 while modern day linguistics studies show that the ahom script developed between the late 14th and 16th centuries 25 26 saikia 1997 describes an utter confusion in the chronology of the presumed tai ahom migration and settlement in the lauhitya valley the first two chronicles of the satsari assam buranji give incompatible sequences the first places the westward migration in 1215 and the initial settlement in 1228 while the second dates the departure to śaka 1170 1248 ce the establishment of the first village fourteen years later in 1262 and sukaphaa s death to śaka 1190 1268 ce the first also assigns him a reign of thirty three years after the occupation of dikhoumukh whereas the second makes him leader of the group for forty two years from its departure from the nara kingdom 27 three other buranjis date sukaphaa s accession to 1362 ce while other accounts preserve still different chronologies b saikia attributes part of the problem to the tai ahom dating system which used a recurring sixty year tao singa cycle composed of named lakni years since the buranjis generally do not identify the particular cycle to which a lakni belonged she regards their conversion into fixed common era dates as uncertain 32 she further argues that the lakni dates inserted into the first satsari chronicle the version supporting 1228 were sometimes incorrectly placed or apparently invented without reference to the tai ahom calendar and therefore cannot be relied upon for reconstructing the early chronology 33 saikia 2004 links the chronological problem to the late compilation and transmission of the sukaphaa traditions she states that the ahom royal genealogy beginning with sukaphaa was fixed during the reign of rajeswar singha 1751 1769 while gaurinath singha 1780 1795 later sent pandits to upper burma to collate accounts of earlier rulers from buddhist temple records particularly those concerning sukaphaa this may explain the common origin narrative repeated in later buranjis although it is no longer possible to determine whether they drew upon one source or several 34 sukaphaa or related figures also appears in the ancestral traditions of several shan groups in upper burma with differing dates genealogies and political roles but neither the origin of these traditions nor the direction of their transmission can now be established 35 john f hartmann similarly considered the chronology beginning with the first tai ahom ruler probably too early by as much as 200 years and noted that the official accounts of the early period were later refreshed with tai mau and khamti chronicles obtained through continued contact with those groups 36 saikia notes that scholars such as n n acharyya fixed 1228 as the beginning of tai ahom rule partly through astronomical reconstruction based on an eclipse recorded during susenpha s reign 32 acharyya identified it with the partial solar eclipse of 6 march 1486 and by working backwards through the royal succession using an assumed average reign of 21 years for each preceding ruler concluded that the conventional early thirteenth century chronology was broadly plausible c r c kapoor subsequently argued that the 1486 eclipse was not visible from assam and that the chronicle description better fits the total solar eclipse of 9 july 1488 which was visible there 38 possible synchronisms between rulers named in the buranjis and rulers independently recorded in chinese sources may also be relevant to the chronological problem the buranjis mentions a ruler named sukhanpha or sukhranpha in the traditions surrounding sukaphaa 39 40 this name closely resembles the tai shan name of si kefa rendered hsö hkan hpa sa khaan pha or soe khan fa သိူဝ်ၶၢၼ်ႇၾႃႉ the ruler recorded in chinese sources as si ke fa 思可法 41 modern reconstructions place si ke fa in the mid fourteenth century fernquest gives his reign as 1340 1371 42 conventionally dated to 1340 1371 43 chinese sources similarly record si ke fa s accession to luchuan in 1340 and his subsequent expansion 44 a second possible synchronism occurs in the reign conventionally assigned to sudangphaa traditionally r 1397 1407 the ahom buranji records a surunpha as the nara king to whom tao sulai fled and whose forces subsequently invaded the ahom kingdom 45 nara in ahom sources has been identified with the möng kwang mogaung region 46 surunpha may therefore be compared again tentatively with si ren fa r 1413 1445 the luchuan möng mao ruler recorded in chinese sources who later established a power base in the mogaung region after his conflict with the ming 47 daniels s alternative chronology edit drawing on dehong tai chronicles and 13th and 14th century chinese sources historian christian daniels 2023 has proposed a different reconstruction he argues that the möng mao polity associated with sukaphaa s departure emerged only in the 14th century specifically in the 1330s and that chinese sources mention its ruler sa khaan faa by name only during the 1340s 48 daniels also points to dehong traditions which variously date a major westward expedition from great möng mao towards the indian frontier under saam long to 1319 or 1348 observing that this evidence could suggest that tai migration into the brahmaputra valley occurred during the 14th century 49 daniels therefore proposes two possibilities either the traditional 1215 migration began from another tai polity in southwest yunnan or the upper ayeyarwady rather than from möng mao 50 or the conversion of the buranji s cyclical dates requires revision 51 under the latter interpretation he identifies 1312 13 1324 25 1336 37 and 1348 49 as possible equivalents for the relevant boar year 52 and considers 1336 37 and 1348 49 the most likely dates for the foundation of the ahom polity in assam 53 daniels further notes that a foundation in 1228 29 would be unusually early in the wider history of tai state formation preceding the establishment of sukhothai by about a decade despite assam s considerable distance from the principal centres of tai settlement in mainland southeast asia 54 by contrast a 14th century chronology would place the emergence of the ahom polity within the contemporary rise of möng mao and according to daniels would support the buranji traditions which represent the ahom rulers as descendants of its sa ruling lineage 55 related buranji traditions place sukaphaa s westward movement in the aftermath of an earlier nara möng mao invasion of the region d e f although these accounts do not provide a securely convertible date sukaphaa in assam edit scholars characterise sukaphaa as the leader of an agricultural community seeking land for permanent settlement rather than as a raiding conqueror it appears he did not encroach upon the lands of the local peasants rather he opened up new areas of settlement procuring with shrewd diplomacy what he direly needed for the purpose the service of the local inhabitants 62 the establishment of these settlements however involved both negotiation and coercion guha describes the migrating group as a self governed body of armed peasants which while moving through the region left small colonies at strategic places such as khamjang and tipam before settling in the dikhou valley 63 according to baruah sukaphaa used conciliation to win over sections of the moran and barahi populations but those who resisted were ruthlessly killed 64 g buranji based reconstructions also portray his movement as strategically selective after learning of a large population concentration on the namdang sukaphaa s party became apprehensive and moved away from the area h his early polity thus developed through settlement alliance incorporation of local groups and selective military force rather than through either purely peaceful migration or indiscriminate conquest establishment of ahom kingdom edit the conventional chronology assigns sukaphaa s successive moves and the establishment of his principal settlement in upper assam to the period between 1236 and 1253 71 according to this reconstruction sukaphaa moved from place to place in search of a capital leaving representatives at earlier settlements he went up the burhidihing river and established a province at lakhen telsa 72 then he came back down the river and established his rule at tipam in 1236 he moved to mungklang abhoipur and in 1240 down the brahmaputra to habung in 1244 he went further down to ligirigaon song tak a few miles from present day nazira and in 1246 to simaluguri tun nyeu a place downstream from the present day simaluguri 73 finally in 1253 he built himself his capital city at charaideo near present day sibsagar town the capital of the ahom kingdom changed many times after this but charaideo remained the symbolic center of ahom rule map showing the present course of the dihing river and an approximate reconstruction of its former course during sukapha s migration into assam using palaeochannel map published by j n sarma i according to traditional accounts of sukaphaa s migration his route followed the dihing through settlements such as tipam namrup and salguri these places can be seen along the older course of the river with the help of local recruits he established three large farms for sali rice cultivation called barakhowakhat engerakhat and gachikalakhat 74 the conventional chronology dates sukaphaa s death to 1268 at the time of his death his kingdom was bounded by the brahmaputra river in the west the disang river in the north the dikhow river 26 58 15 n 94 38 12 e 26 970732 n 94 636745 e 26 970732 94 636745 in the south and the naga hills in the east 73 even though sukaphaa treated the people of t...