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volatile organic compounds and airborne particulate matter that produce photochemical smog and acid rain and the chlorofluorocarbons that degrade the ozone layer anthropogenic particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere reduce the direct irradiance and reflectance albedo of the earth s surface known as global dimming the decrease is estimated to have been about 4 between 1960 and 1990 although the trend has subsequently reversed global dimming may have disturbed the global water cycle by reducing evaporation and rainfall in some areas it also creates a cooling effect and this may have partially masked the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming 6 oceans edit further information coastal management and overfishing a selection of the world s saltwater fish ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and in turn the food supply of both humans and other organisms scientists have warned of the possibility under the influence of climate change of a sudden alteration in circulation patterns of ocean currents that could drastically alter the climate in some regions of the globe 7 major human environmental impacts occur in the more habitable regions of the ocean fringes the estuaries coastline and bays eight point five of the world s population about 600 million people live in low lying areas vulnerable to sea level rise trends of concern that require management include over fishing beyond sustainable levels 8 coral bleaching due to ocean warming and ocean acidification due to increasing levels of dissolved carbon dioxide 9 and sea level rise due to climate change because of their vastness oceans also act as a convenient dumping ground for human waste 10 remedial strategies include more careful waste management statutory control of overfishing by adoption of sustainable fishing practices and the use of environmentally sensitive and sustainable aquaculture and fish farming reduction of fossil fuel emissions and restoration of coastal and other marine habitats 11 freshwater edit further information water security and water scarcity water covers 71 of the earth s surface of this 97 5 is the salty water of the oceans and only 2 5 freshwater most of which is locked up in the antarctic ice sheet the remaining freshwater is found in lakes rivers wetlands the soil aquifers and atmosphere all life depends on the solar powered global water cycle the evaporation from oceans and land to form water vapour that later condenses from clouds as rain which then becomes the renewable part of the freshwater supply 12 awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as during the 20th century more than half the world s wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services biodiversity rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems 13 making them the world s most vulnerable habitats 14 increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean safe water 12 in the industrial world demand management has slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly water is being transported over vast distances from water rich natural areas to population dense urban areas and energy hungry desalination is becoming more widely used greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue harvestable and green soil water available for plant use water and this applies at all scales of water management 13 land edit further information land use loss of biodiversity originates largely from the habitat loss and fragmentation produced by artificial land development forestry and agriculture as natural capital is progressively converted to man made capital land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation agriculture forest woodland grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles and this can negatively impact both natural and human systems 3 at the local human scale major sustainability benefits accrue from the pursuit of green cities and sustainable parks and gardens 15 16 forests edit further information forestry and ecoforestry beech forest grib skov denmark since the neolithic revolution human consumption has reduced the world s forest cover by about 47 present day forests occupy about a quarter of the world s ice free land with about half of these occurring in the tropics 17 in temperate and boreal regions forest area is gradually increasing with the exception of siberia but deforestation in the tropics is of major concern 18 forests moderate the local climate and the global water cycle through their light reflectance albedo and evapotranspiration they also conserve biodiversity protect water quality preserve soil and soil quality provide fuel and pharmaceuticals and purify the air these free ecosystem services are not given a market value under most current economic systems and so forest conservation has little appeal when compared with the economic benefits of logging and clearance which through soil degradation and organic decomposition returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere 19 the united nations food and agriculture organization fao estimates that about 90 of the carbon stored in land vegetation is locked up in trees and that they sequester about 50 more carbon than is present in the atmosphere changes in land use currently contribute about 20 of total global carbon emissions heavily logged indonesia and brazil are a major source of emissions 19 climate change can be mitigated by sequestering carbon in reafforestation schemes plantations and timber products also wood biomass can be utilized as a renewable carbon neutral fuel the fao has suggested that over the period 2005 2050 effective use of tree planting could absorb about 10 20 of man made emissions so monitoring the condition of the world s forests must be part of a global strategy to mitigate emissions and protect ecosystem services 20 however climate change may preempt this fao scenario as a study by the international union of forest research organizations in 2009 concluded that the stress of a 2 5 c 36 5 f temperature rise above pre industrial levels could result in the release of vast amounts of carbon 21 so the potential of forests to act as carbon sinks is at risk of being lost entirely 22 cultivated land edit main article sustainable agriculture a rice paddy rice wheat corn and potatoes make up more than half the world s food supply feeding more than seven billion human bodies takes a heavy toll on the earth s resources this begins with the appropriation of about 38 of the earth s land surface 23 and about 20 of its net primary productivity 24 added to this are the resource hungry activities of industrial agribusiness everything from the crop need for irrigation water synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to the resource costs of food packaging transport now a major part of global trade and retail food is essential to life but the list of environmental costs of food production is a long one topsoil depletion erosion and conversion to desert from constant tillage of annual crops overgrazing salinization sodification waterlogging high levels of fossil fuel use reliance on inorganic fertilisers and synthetic organic pesticides reductions in genetic diversity by the mass use of monocultures water resource depletion pollution of waterbodies by run off and groundwater contamination social problems including the decline of family farms and weakening of rural communities 25 all of these environmental problems associated with industrial agriculture and agribusiness are now being addressed through such movements as sustainable agriculture organic farming and more sustainable business practices 26 extinctions edit further information extinction the extinct dodo raphus cucullatus although biodiversity loss can be monitored simply as loss of species effective conservation demands the protection of species within their natural habitats and ecosystems following human migration and population growth species extinctions have progressively increased to a rate unprecedented since the cretaceous paleogene extinction event citation needed known as the holocene extinction event this current human induced extinction of species ranks as one of the world s six mass extinction events some scientific estimates indicate that up to half of presently existing species may become extinct by 2100 27 28 current extinction rates are 100 to 1000 times their prehuman levels with more than 10 birds and mammals threatened about 8 of plants 5 of fish and more than 20 of freshwater species 29 the 2008 iucn red list warns that long term droughts and extreme weather put additional stress on key habitats and for example lists 1 226 bird species as threatened with extinction which is one eighth of all bird species 30 31 the red list index also identifies 44 tree species in central asia as under threat of extinction due to over exploitation and human development and threatening the region s forests which are home to more than 300 wild ancestors of modern domesticated fruit and nut cultivars 32 biological invasions edit further information introduced species kudzu pueraria lobata infesting trees in atlanta georgia usa in many parts of the industrial world land clearing for agriculture has diminished and here the greatest threat to biodiversity after climate change has become the destructive effect of invasive species 33 increasingly efficient global transport has facilitated the spread of organisms across the planet the potential danger of this aspect of globalization is starkly illustrated through the spread of human diseases like hiv aids mad cow disease bird flu and swine flu but invasive plants and animals are also having a devastating impact on native biodiversity non indigenous organisms can quickly occupy disturbed land and natural areas where in the absence of their natural predators they are able to thrive 34 at the global scale this issue is being addressed through the global invasive species information network but there is improved international biosecurity legislation to minimise the transmission of pathogens and invasive organisms also through cites legislation there is control the trade in rare and threatened species increasingly at the local level public awareness programs are alerting communities gardeners the nursery industry collectors and the pet and aquarium industries to the harmful effects of potentially invasive species 35 resistance to change edit main article sustainability and systemic change resistance the environmental sustainability problem has proven difficult to solve the modern environmental movement has attempted to solve the problem in a large variety of ways but little progress has been made as shown by severe ecological footprint overshoot and lack of sufficient progress on the climate change problem something within the human system in preventing change to a sustainable mode of behavior that system trait is systemic change resistance change resistance is also known as organizational resistance barriers to change or policy resistance 36 see also edit environmental management integrated landscape management natural resource management planetary management references edit the economics and social benefits of noaa ecosystems data and products table of contents data users noaa archived from the original on 2010 03 25 retrieved 2009 10 13 buchenrieder g und a r göltenboth sustainable freshwater resource management in the tropics the myth of effective indicators 25th international conference of agricultural economists iaae on reshaping agriculture s contributions to society in durban south africa 2003 1 2 krebs 2001 pp 560 582 university of copenhagen march 2009 key messages from the congress archived 2009 03 16 at the wayback machine news item on copenhagen climate congress in march 2009 retrieved on 2009 03 18 adams d march 2009 stern attacks politicians over climate devastation the guardian retrieved on 2009 03 18 hegerl g c et al 2007 climate change 2007 the physical science basis chapter 9 understanding and attributing climate change contribution of working group 1 to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change p 676 cambridge cambridge university press full report at ipcc report retrieved on 2009 03 18 kerr r a 2004 a slowing cog in the north atlantic ocean s climate machine science 304 371 372 retrieved on 2009 04 19 black r november 2006 only 50 years left for sea fish bbc news uk harrabin r march 2009 coral lab offers acidity insight bbc news uk retrieved on 2009 03 18 schukman d march 2009 sea rise to exceed expectations bbc news uk retrieved on 2009 03 18 lindenmayer burgman 2005 1 2 clarke king 2006 pp 20 21 1 2 hoekstra a y 2006 the global dimension of water governance nine reasons for global arrangements in order to cope with local problems value of water research report series no 20 unesco ihe institute for water education retrieved on 2009 03 18 world wide fund for nature 2008 living planet report 2008 retrieved on 2009 03 29 organic gardening techniques missouri university extension october 2004 retrieved june 17 2009 sustainable gardening food production archived 2010 06 21 at the wayback machine daniel boone regional library retrieved june 17 2009 world resources institute 1998 world resources 1998 1999 oxford oxford university press isbn 0 19 521408 0 groombridge jenkins 2002 1 2 food and agriculture organisation 2006 global forest resources assessment 2005 progress towards sustainable forest management forestry paper 147 rome fao retrieved on 2009 04 17 ipcc 2006 ipcc guidelines for national greenhouse inventories vol 4 agriculture forestry and other land uses japan institute for global environment strategies kinver m april 2009 key role of forests may be lost bbc news uk retrieved on 2009 04 19 dold m april 2009 new study warns damage to forests from climate change could cost the planet its major keeper of greenhouse gases iufro news retrieved on 2009 04 20 food and agriculture organization june 2006 food and agriculture statistics global outlook rome fao statistics division retrieved on 2009 03 18 imhoff m l et al 2004 global patterns in human consumption of net primary production nature 429 870 873 tudge 2004 world business council for sustainable development archived 2009 04 10 at the wayback machine this web site has multiple articles on wbcsd contributions to sustainable development retrieved on 2009 04 07 wilson 2002 leakey lewin 1995 millennium ecosystem assessment pp 42 47 kinver m may 2008 climate accelerating bird loss bbc news uk retrieved on 2009 04 17 bbc news march 2009 climate hitting europe s birds bbc news uk retrieved on 2009 04 17 gill v the wild ancestors of c...