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ch limburgs lietuvių latviešu македонски монгол bahasa melayu nederlands norsk nynorsk norsk bokmål occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ polski پښتو português română русский سنڌي srpskohrvatski српскохрватски simple english slovenčina slovenščina shqip српски srpski svenska தமிழ் ไทย tagalog toki pona türkçe українська tiếng việt winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikimedia commons wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia study of the forms of land surfaces in earth not to be confused with topology typography or tomography this article is about the study of earth s surface shape and features for discussion of land surfaces themselves see terrain for other uses see topography disambiguation this article needs more citations please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed find sources topography news newspapers books scholar jstor january 2021 learn how and when to remove this message a topographic map of stowe vermont with contour lines this false color satellite image illustrates topography of the urban core of the new york metropolitan area with manhattan at its center topography is the study of forms and features of land surfaces the topography of an area may refer to landforms and features themselves or a description or depiction in maps topography is a field of geoscience and planetary science and is concerned with local detail in general including not only relief but also natural artificial and cultural features such as roads land boundaries and buildings 1 in the united states topography often means specifically relief even though the usgs topographic maps record not just elevation contours but also roads populated places structures land boundaries and so on 2 topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain the three dimensional quality of the surface and the identification of specific landforms this is also known as geomorphometry in modern usage this involves the generation of elevation data in digital form dem it is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a map by a variety of cartographic relief depiction techniques including contour lines hypsometric tints and relief shading etymology edit see also topographic map history the term topography originated in ancient greece and continued in ancient rome as the detailed description of a place the word comes from the greek τόπος topos place and γραφία graphia writing 3 in classical literature this refers to writing about a place or places what is now largely called local history in britain and in europe in general the word topography is still sometimes used in its original sense 4 detailed military surveys in britain beginning in the late eighteenth century were called ordnance surveys and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys and maps 5 the earliest scientific surveys in france were the cassini maps after the family who produced them over four generations 6 the term topographic surveys appears to be american in origin the earliest detailed surveys in the united states were made by the topographical bureau of the army formed during the war of 1812 7 which became the corps of topographical engineers in 1838 8 after the work of national mapping was assumed by the united states geological survey in 1878 the term topographical remained as a general term for detailed surveys and mapping programs and has been adopted by most other nations as standard in the 20th century the term topography started to be used to describe surface description in other fields where mapping in a broader sense is used particularly in medical fields such as neurology objectives edit an objective of topography is to determine the position of any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal coordinate system such as latitude longitude and altitude identifying naming features and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of the field a topographic study may be made for a variety of reasons military planning and geological exploration have been primary motivators to start survey programs but detailed information about terrain and surface features is essential for the planning and construction of any major civil engineering public works or reclamation projects techniques edit there are a variety of approaches to studying topography which method s to use depends on the scale and size of the area under study its accessibility and the quality of existing surveys field survey edit further information surveying and geodesy a surveying point in germany surveying helps determine accurately the terrestrial or three dimensional space position of points and the distances and angles between them using leveling instruments such as theodolites dumpy levels and clinometers gps and other global navigation satellite systems gnss are also used work on one of the first topographic maps was begun in france by giovanni domenico cassini the great italian astronomer even though remote sensing has greatly sped up the process of gathering information and has allowed greater accuracy control over long distances the direct survey still provides the basic control points and framework for all topographic work whether manual or gis based in areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program most of europe and the continental u s for example the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as usgs dem data this data must often be cleaned to eliminate discrepancies between surveys but it still forms a valuable set of information for large scale analysis the original american topographic surveys or the british ordnance surveys involved not only the recording of relief but the identification of landmark features and vegetative land cover remote sensing edit main article remote sensing remote sensing is a general term for geodata collection at a distance from the subject area use of laser scanners edit topographic surveys using laser scanners commonly known as lidar li ght d etection a nd r anging are a method for capturing high resolution spatial data of landscapes architectural structures and terrains with a vertical accuracy of 10 centimeters these surveys utilise a laser scanner that emits millions of laser pulses every second the travel time of these pulses as they are reflected or bounce back from the ground are measured allowing for the creation of a detailed point cloud that represents the scanned environment 9 10 products of lidar include digital elevation models dems which are a representation of the bare earth topographic surface excluding vegetation buildings and other surface objects 11 passive sensor methodologies edit main articles aerial photography and satellite imagery besides their role in photogrammetry aerial and satellite imagery can be used to identify and delineate terrain features and more general land cover features certainly they have become more and more a part of geovisualization whether maps or gis systems false color and non visible spectra imaging can also help determine the lie of the land by delineating vegetation and other land use information more clearly images can be in visible colours and in other spectra photogrammetry edit main article photogrammetry photogrammetry is a measurement technique for which the co ordinates of the points in 3d of an object are determined by the measurements made in two photographic images or more taken starting from different positions usually from different passes of an aerial photography flight in this technique the common points are identified on each image a line of sight or ray can be built from the camera location to the point on the object it is the intersection of its rays triangulation that determines the relative three dimensional position of the point known control points can be used to give these relative positions absolute values more sophisticated algorithms can exploit other information on the scene known a priori for example symmetries in certain cases allowing the rebuilding of three dimensional co ordinates starting from only one position of the camera active sensor methodologies edit satellite radar mapping is one of the major techniques of generating digital elevation models see below similar techniques are applied in bathymetric surveys using sonar to determine the terrain of the ocean floor in recent years lidar a remote sensing technique that uses a laser instead of radio waves has increasingly been employed for complex mapping needs such as charting canopies and monitoring glaciers forms of topographic data edit terrain is commonly modelled either using vector triangulated irregular network or tin or gridded raster image mathematical models in the most applications in environmental sciences the land surface is represented and modelled using gridded models in civil engineering and entertainment businesses the most representations of land surface employ some variant of tin models in geostatistics the land surface is commonly modelled as a combination of the two signals the smooth spatially correlated and the rough noise signal in practice surveyors first sample heights in an area then use these to produce a digital land surface model in the form of a tin the dlsm can then be used to visualize terrain drape remote sensing images quantify ecological properties of a surface or extract land surface objects the contour data or any other sampled elevation datasets are not a dlsm a dlsm implies that elevation is available continuously at each location in the study area i e that the map represents a complete surface digital land surface models should not be confused with digital surface models which can be surfaces of the canopy buildings and similar objects for example in the case of surface models produces using the lidar technology one can have several surfaces starting from the top of the canopy to the actual solid earth the difference between the two surface models can then be used to derive volumetric measures height of trees etc raw survey data edit topographic survey information is historically based upon the notes of surveyors they may derive naming and cultural information from other local sources for example boundary delineation may be derived from local cadastral mapping while of historical interest these field notes inherently include errors and contradictions that later stages in map production resolve remote sensing data edit as with field notes remote sensing data aerial and satellite photography for example is raw and uninterpreted it may contain holes due to cloud cover for example or inconsistencies due to the timing of specific image captures most modern topographic mapping includes a large component of remotely sensed data in its compilation process topographic mapping edit main article topographic map a map of europe using elevation modeling in its contemporary definition topographic mapping shows relief in the united states usgs topographic maps show relief using contour lines the usgs calls maps based on topographic surveys but without contours planimetric maps these maps show not only the contours but also any significant streams or other bodies of water forest cover built up areas or individual buildings depending on scale and other features and points of interest while not officially topographic maps the national surveys of other nations share many of the same features and so they are often called topographic maps existing topographic survey maps because of their comprehensive and encyclopedic coverage form the basis for much derived topographic work digital elevation models for example have often been created not from new remote sensing data but from existing paper topographic maps many government and private publishers use the artwork especially the contour lines from existing topographic map sheets as the basis for their own specialized or updated topographic maps 12 topographic mapping should not be confused with geological mapping the latter is concerned with underlying structures and processes to the surface rather than with identifiable surface features digital elevation modeling edit main article digital elevation model relief map sierra nevada mountains spain 3d rendering of a dem used for the topography of mars the digital elevation model dem is a raster based digital dataset of the topography hypsometry and or bathymetry of all or part of the earth or a telluric planet the pixels of the dataset are each assigned an elevation value and a header portion of the dataset defines the area of coverage the units each pixel covers and the units of elevation and the zero point dems may be derived from existing paper maps and survey data or they may be generated from new satellite or other remotely sensed radar or sonar data topological modeling edit stl 3d model of earth without liquid water with 20 elevation exaggeration a geographic information system gis can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data these topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency what adjoins what containment what encloses what and proximity how close something is to something else reconstitute a sight in synthesized images of the ground determine a trajectory of overflight of the ground calculate surfaces or volumes trace topographic profiles topography in other fields edit main article topography disambiguation topography has been applied to different science fields in neuroscience the neuroimaging discipline uses techniques such as eeg topography for brain mapping in ophthalmology corneal topography is used as a technique for mapping the surface curvature of the cornea in tissue engineering atomic force microscopy is used to map nanotopography in human anatomy topography is superficial human anatomy in mathematics the concept of topography is used to indicate the patterns or general organization of features on a map or as a term referring to the pattern in which variables or their values are distributed in a space topographers edit main category topographers this list is incomplete you can help by adding missing items may 2021 topographers are experts in topography they study and describe the surface features of a place or region see also edit cartography digital elevation model fall line topography geomorphology global relief model hypsography marine topography sea surface topography topographi...