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support this claim the historians argue that the political structures of these states were disorganized and chaotic and that despite the supposed external similarities between nazism and stalinism their internal logic and structure were substantially different the applicability of the concept to islamism has also been criticized 7 9 10 definitions edit contemporary background edit joseph stalin left leader of the soviet union and adolf hitler right leader of nazi germany respectively to their positions on the left right political spectrum totalitarianism as a concept of western political science and later historiography emerged from comparison of their regimes 7 defined as exemplary cases of totalitarianism 9 modern political science catalogues three régimes of government i the democratic ii the authoritarian and iii the totalitarian 11 143 12 varying by political culture the functional characteristics of the totalitarian régime of government are political repression of all opposition individual and collective a cult of personality about the leader official economic interventionism controlled wages and prices official censorship of all mass communication media the press textbooks cinema television radio internet official mass surveillance policing of public places and state terrorism 4 in the essay democide in totalitarian states 1994 the american political scientist rudolph rummel while acknowledging that there is much confusion about what is meant by totalitarian up to denial that totalitarian systems have ever existed defined a totalitarian state as one with a system of government that is unlimited either constitutionally or by countervailing powers in society such as by a church rural gentry labor unions or regional powers is not held responsible to the public by periodic secret and competitive elections and employs its unlimited power to control all aspects of society including the family religion education business private property and social relationships according to rummel such governments act as agencies of totalitarianism itself that is the ideology of absolute power which installs mortacracy in states controlled by it rummel cited marxism leninism and communism in the soviet union under joseph stalin china under mao zedong and in east germany nazism in germany under adolf hitler and fascism in other states state socialism burmese way to socialism in burma under u ne win and islamic fundamentalism islamism in iran as examples of totalitarianism 13 14 however not all scholars believe these regimes and ideologies exemplify totalitarianism some of those who support of the concept of totalitarianism exclude burma 15 iran 16 and even fascist italy 17 from this category while historians who state that the concept can not adequately describe stalinism nor nazism criticize the concept of totalitarianism in general see below degree of control in exercising the power of government upon society the application of an official dominant ideology differentiates the worldview of the totalitarian régime from the worldview of the authoritarian régime which is only concerned with political power and as long as government power is not contested the authoritarian government gives society a certain degree of liberty 6 having no ideology to propagate the politically secular authoritarian government does not attempt to change the world and human nature 6 whereas the totalitarian government seeks to completely control the thoughts and actions of its citizens 5 by way of an official totalist ideology a political party reinforced by a secret police and monopolistic control of industrial mass society 6 historical background edit for influential philosopher karl popper the social phenomenon of political totalitarianism is a product of modernism which popper said originated in humanist philosophy in the republic res publica proposed by plato in ancient greece in hegel s conception of the state as a polity of peoples and in the political economy of karl marx in the 19th century 18 yet historians and philosophers of those periods dispute the historiographic accuracy of popper s 20th century interpretation and delineation of the historical origins of totalitarianism because for example the ancient greek philosopher plato did not invent the modern state 19 popper s approach has been described as a radical denial of historical causation 20 and as an ahistorical attempt to present totalitarianism and liberalism not as products of historical development but as eternal and timeless categories of humankind itself 21 there were similar ideocratic 7 attempts in traditions of the counter enlightenment 22 to trace totalitarianism back to the times preceding the 20th century eric voegelin saw totalitarianism as the journey s end of the gnostic search for a civil theology an epilogue of the process of secularization which began with the reformation and led to a world deprived of any religiosity jacob talmon thought totalitarianism to be a merger of left wing radical democracy from jean jacques rousseau maximilien robespierre and françois noël babeuf and right wing irrationalism from johann gottlieb fichte as traditions opposed to empirical liberalism 7 the german philosophers max horkheimer and theodor w adorno viewed totalitarianism as an ineluctable destiny of modernity rooted in the origins of the western civilization and as an ultimate end of the evolution of the enlightenment from emancipatory reason to instrumental rationality 21 and as a product of anthropocentrist proposition that man has become the master of the world a master unbound by any links to nature society and history which excludes the intervention of supernatural beings to earthly politics of government 23 enzo traverso believes that the idea of total state or totalitarian state as it would be called later came from the concept of total war which was used to describe world war i by its contemporaries the war shaped the imagination of an entire generation by rationalizing nihilism and methodical destruction of the enemy introducing a new warrior ethos in which the old ideals of heroism and chivalry merged with modern technology and a process of brutalization of politics and such examples of continentally planned industrial killing as the armenian genocide total war became total state and after the war it was used as a pejorative by the italian anti fascists of the 1920s and later by the italian fascists themselves 7 american historian william rubinstein wrote that the age of totalitarianism included nearly all the infamous examples of genocide in modern history headed by the jewish holocaust but also comprising the mass murders and purges of the communist world other mass killings carried out by nazi germany and its allies and also the armenian genocide of 1915 all these slaughters it is argued here had a common origin the collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of government of much of central eastern and southern europe as a result of world war i without which surely neither communism nor fascism would have existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and crackpots 24 in the 20th century giovanni gentile classified italian fascism as a political ideology with a philosophy that is totalitarian and that the fascist state a synthesis and a unity inclusive of all values interprets develops and potentiates the whole life of a people gentile expressed his ideas in the doctrine of fascism 1932 an essay he co authored with benito mussolini 25 in 1920s germany during the weimar republic 1918 1933 the nazi jurist carl schmitt integrated gentile s fascist philosophy of united national purpose to the supreme leader ideology of the führerprinzip citation needed since the cold war the so called traditionalist or totalitarian historians see below have argued 26 27 that vladimir lenin one of the leaders of the 1917 october revolution in russia was the first politician to establish a totalitarian state 28 29 30 31 32 such description of lenin is opposed by the so called revisionist historians of communism and the soviet union 26 as well as by a broad range of authors including hannah arendt 33 27 as the duce leading the italian people to the future benito mussolini said that his dictatorial régime of government made fascist italy 1922 1943 the representative totalitarian state everything in the state nothing outside the state nothing against the state 34 likewise in the concept of the political 1927 the nazi jurist schmitt used the term der totalstaat the total state to identify describe and establish the legitimacy of a german totalitarian state led by a supreme leader 35 later joseph goebbels would call a totalitarian state the goal of the nazi party 36 although the concept became downplayed in nazi discourse 7 after the second world war 1937 1945 u s political discourse domestic and foreign included the concepts ideologic and political and the terms totalitarian totalitarianism and totalitarian model in the post war u s of the 1950s to politically discredit the anti fascism of the second world war as misguided foreign policy and at the same time direct anti fascists against communism mccarthyite politicians claimed that left wing totalitarianism was an existential threat to western civilization and so facilitated the creation of the american national security state to execute the anti communist cold war 1945 1989 that was fought by client state proxies of the us and the ussr 37 38 39 40 41 while the concept of totalitarianism became dominant in anglo american political discourse after world war ii it remained neglected in continental europe except for west germany in such countries as italy and france where the communist parties played a hegemonic role in the anti fascist resistance the pioneering works of the theory of totalitarianism by such authors as hannah arendt zbigniew brzezinski and carl friedrich were often ignored or not even translated the political theory of totalitarianism in these countries was promoted by congress for cultural freedom supported by the cia 7 historiography edit totalitarians and revisionists edit anti communist propaganda in west germany 1953 all ways of marxism lead to moscow therefore cdu the western historiography of the ussr and the soviet period of russian history is divided into two schools of research and interpretation i the traditionalist school of historiography and ii the revisionist school of historiography 42 the traditionalists and neo traditionalists or anti revisionists are also known as totalitarian school or totalitarian approach and cold war historians 26 27 for relying on concepts and interpretations rooted in the early years of the cold war and even in the sphere russian white émigrés of the 1920s 26 traditionalist school historians characterize themselves as objective reporters of the claimed totalitarianism allegedly inherent to marxism to communism and to the political nature of communist states such as the ussr while the cold war revisionists criticized the politically liberal and anti communist bias they perceived in the predominance of the traditionalists and describe their approach as emotional and oversimplifying 42 revisionist school historians criticise the traditionalist school s concentration upon the police state aspects of cold war history which they say leads it to failed verification anti communist interpretation of history biased towards a right wing interpretation of the documentary facts the revisionists also oppose the equation of nazism and communism and stalinism and stress such their ideological differences as the humanist and egalitarian origins of communist ideology 42 in the 1960s revisionists studying the cold war and the communist movement in the u s criticized the dominant ideas that american communists were an actual threat to the united states 42 and that the cold war was the fault of stalin s territorial and political ambitions and that soviet expansionism and its alleged strife to conquer the world forced the u s to turn from isolationism to a global containment policy 27 the difference between these two historiographic directions is not only political but also as methodological the traditionalists focus on politics ideology and personalities of the bolshevik and communist leaders putting the latter in the center of history while largely ignoring social processes 27 and traditionalists present history from above directed by the leaders while the revisionists put emphasis on history from below 26 and social history of the soviet government 27 and they describe the traditionalists as right wing romantics 42 in their turn the traditionalists defend their approach and methodology dismiss focus on social history and accuse their opponents of marxism and of rationalizing the actions of the bolsheviks and failing to recognize the primary role of one man leading a movement vladimir lenin or adolf hitler between the late 1970s and early 1980s revisionist approaches became largely accepted in academic circles and the term revisionism migrated to characterize a group of social historians focusing on the working class and the upheavals of the stalin years at the same time traditionalist historians retained popularity and influence outside academic circles especially in politics and public spheres of the united states where they supported harder policies towards the ussr for example zbigniew brzezinski served as national security advisor to president jimmy carter while richard pipes a prominent historian of totalitarian school headed the cia group team b after 1991 their views have found popularity not only in the west but also in the former ussr 27 1920 soviet propaganda poster with a complimentary cartoon of vladimir lenin by viktor deni according to traditionalist historians lenin was the first politician to establish a totalitarian regime such description have been opposed by the revisionists and other authors leninism and the october revolution edit main article october revolution historiography since the 1980s there has been a debate over the nature of the october revolution between the traditionalists and the revisionists as well as a debate about the nature of the government of vladimir lenin traditionalist scholars believe that the government of vladimir lenin was a totalitarian dictatorship but revisionist scholars do not the core argument of the traditionalists was based on their belief that the revolution was a violent act which was carried out from above by a small group of intellectuals with brute force 26 such traditionalist historians as richard pipes claimed that soviet russia of 1917 1924 was as totalitarian as the soviet union under stalin was and they also claim that stalinist totalitarianism was a mere continuation of lenin s policies because stalinism was prefigured by lenin s ideology 33 43 that lenin was the inventor riley of totalitarianism and that further totalitarian governm...