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українська 中文 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia redirected from tourma cavalry unit of ancient rome and the byzantine empire a turma from latin swarm squadron plural turmae greek τούρμα was a cavalry unit in the roman army of the republic and empire in the byzantine empire it became applied to the larger regiment sized military administrative divisions of a thema the word is often translated as squadron but so is the term ala a unit that was made up of several turmae roman army edit republic edit in the 3rd and 2nd centuries bc the time of the punic wars and rome s expansion into spain and greece the core of the roman army was formed by citizens augmented by contingents from rome s allies socii the organization of the roman legion of the period is described by the greek historian polybius cf the so called polybian army who writes that each 4 200 strong infantry legion was accompanied by 300 citizen cavalry equites this contingent was divided into ten turmae 1 2 according to polybius the squadron members would elect as their officers three decuriones leaders of 10 men of whom the first to be chosen would act as the squadron s commander and the other two as his deputies 3 as in earlier times these men were drawn from among the 18 centuriae of the equestrian order the wealthiest classes of the roman people who could afford to provide for the horse and its equipment themselves 1 empire edit reconstruction of a roman cavalryman of the principate nijmegen with the reorganization of the army under emperor augustus r 27 bc 14 ad and his successors the turma became the basic sub unit of the cavalry the rough equivalent of the infantry centuria both in the auxiliaries who formed the bulk of the roman cavalry and in the legionary cavalry detachments the auxiliary cohors equitata was a mixed unit combining infantry and cavalry and existed in two types the cohors equitata quingenaria with an infantry cohort of 480 men and 4 turmae of cavalry and the reinforced cohors equitata milliaria with 800 infantry and 8 turmae likewise the purely cavalry alae contained either 16 ala quingenaria or 24 turmae ala milliaria 4 5 individual turmae of camel riders dromedarii also appear among cohortes equitatae in the middle east and emperor trajan r 98 117 established the first all camel cavalry unit the ala i ulpia dromedariorum palmyrenorum 6 the turma was still commanded by a decurio aided by two subaltern principales under officers a sesquiplicarius soldier with one and a half times pay and a duplicarius soldier with double pay as well as a signifer or vexillarius a standard bearer cf vexillum these ranks corresponded respectively with the infantry s tesserarius officer of the watch optio and signifer 4 7 the exact size of the turma under the principate however is unclear 30 men was the norm in the republican army and apparently in the cohortes equitatae but not for the alae the de munitionibus castrorum for instance records that a cohors equitata milliaria numbered exactly 240 troopers i e 30 men per turma 8 but also gives the number of horses for the ala milliaria composed of 24 turmae at 1000 9 if one subtracts the extra horses of the officers two for a decurio one for each of the two subaltern under officers one is left with 832 horses which does not divide evenly with 24 at the same time arrian explicitly says that the ala quingenaria counted 512 men 10 suggesting a size of 32 men for each turma as for the legions during the principate each had a cavalry contingent organized in four turmae a legionary turma was led by a centurion assisted by an optio and a vexillarius as senior principales each of them led a file of ten troopers for a grand total of 132 horsemen in each legion 11 their status was distinctly inferior to that of the legionary infantry the centurions and principales of the legionary turmae were classed as supernumerarii and although their men were included in the legionary cohort lists they camped separately from them 11 in the late roman army the turma and its structure were retained with changes in titulature only the turma was still headed by a decurio who also led the first ten strong file while the other two files were led by subaltern catafractarii in essence the successors of the early empire s duplicarii and sesquiplicarii 12 traces of this structure also apparently survived in the 6th century east roman army in the late 6th century strategikon of maurice the cavalry files are led by a dekarchos greek δέκαρχος leader of ten 12 byzantine empire edit in the 7th century as a result of the crisis caused by the early muslim conquests the byzantine military and administrative system was reformed the old late roman division between military and civil administration was abandoned and the remains of the east roman army s field armies were settled in great districts the themata that were named after them 13 the term turma in its greek transcription tourma τούρμα or τοῦρμα reappears at that time as the major subdivision of a thema 14 the army of each thema except for the optimatoi was divided into two to four tourmai 14 and each tourma further into a number of moirai μοίραι or droungoi δροῦγγοι which in turn were composed of several banda singular bandon βάνδον from latin bandum banner 15 this division was carried through to the territorial administration of each thema tourmai and banda but not the moirai droungoi were identified with clearly defined districts which served as their garrison and recruitment areas 16 in his taktika emperor leo vi the wise r 886 912 presents an idealized thema as consisting of three tourmai each divided into three droungoi etc 17 this picture however is misleading as the sources do not support any degree of uniformity in size or number of subdivisions in the different themata nor indeed an exact correspondence of the territorial with the tactical divisions depending on the tactical exigencies smaller administrative tourmai could be joined on campaign and larger ones broken up 18 since the elementary unit the bandon could itself number between 200 and 400 men the tourma too could reach up to 6000 men although 2 5000 seems to have been the norm between the seventh and early tenth centuries 19 seal of theophilos basilikos spatharios and tourmarchēs of the cibyrrhaeots each tourma was usually headed by a tourmarchēs τουρμάρχης commander of a tourma in some cases however an ek prosōpou a temporary representative of the governing stratēgos of each thema could be appointed instead 14 20 the title first appears in circa 626 when a certain george was tourmarchēs of the armeniac theme 21 the tourmarchēs was usually based in a fortress town aside from his military responsibilities he exercised fiscal and judicial duties in the area under his control 17 in the lists of offices taktika and seals tourmarchai usually hold the ranks of spatharokandidatos spatharios or kandidatos 22 in function and rank the tourmarchēs corresponded with the topotērētēs of the professional imperial tagmata regiments 23 the tourmarchai were paid according to the importance of their thema those of the more prestigious anatolian themes received 216 gold nomismata annually while those of the european themes received 144 nomismata the same amount paid to the droungarioi and the other senior officers of the thema 24 in some sources the earlier term merarchēs μεράρχης commander of a meros division which occupied a similar hierarchical position in the 6th 7th centuries 25 is used interchangeably with tourmarchēs in the 9th 10th centuries it is often found in the variant form meriarchēs μεριάρχης it has however also been suggested by scholars like j b bury and john haldon that the latter was a distinct post held by the tourmarchēs attached to the governing stratēgos of each thema and residing at the thematic capital 17 26 27 in the mid 10th century the average size of most units fell in the case of the tourma it dropped from 2 3000 men to 1000 men and less in essence to the level of the earlier droungos although larger tourmai are still recorded it is probably no coincidence that the term droungos disappears from use at around that time 28 29 consequently the tourma was divided directly into five to seven banda each of 50 100 cavalry or 200 400 infantry 30 the term tourma itself fell gradually into disuse in the 11th century but survived at least until the end of the 12th century as an administrative term tourmarchai are still attested in the first half of the 11th century but the title seems to have fallen out of use thereafter 22 citations edit 1 2 goldsworthy 2003 p 27 erdkamp 2007 p 57 polybius histories 6 25 1 2 erdkamp 2007 p 194 goldsworthy 2003 pp 57 58 erdkamp 2007 p 258 sabin van wees whitby 2007 p 53 de munitionibus castrorum 26 de munitionibus castrorum 16 arrian ars tactica 17 3 1 2 erdkamp 2007 p 275 1 2 erdkamp 2007 p 274 haldon 1999 pp 73 77 1 2 3 odb tourma a kazhdan p 2100 haldon 1999 p 113 haldon 1999 pp 112 113 1 2 3 haldon 1999 p 114 haldon 1999 pp 113 114 treadgold 1995 pp 97 105 odb ek prosopou a kazhdan p 683 haldon 1999 p 315 1 2 odb tourmarches a kazhdan pp 2100 2101 treadgold 1995 p 105 treadgold 1995 pp 130 132 treadgold 1995 pp 94 97 bury 1911 pp 41 42 odb merarches a kazhdan e mcgeer p 1343 haldon 1999 pp 115 116 treadgold 1995 pp 97 106 odb bandon a kazhdan p 250 general and cited references edit bury john bagnell 1911 the imperial administrative system of the ninth century with a revised text of the kletorologion of philotheos london oxford university press erdkamp paul ed 2007 a companion to the roman army malden massachusetts blackwell publishing limited isbn 978 1 4051 2153 8 goldsworthy adrian 2003 the complete roman army london united kingdom thames hudson limited isbn 0 500 05124 0 haldon john 1999 warfare state and society in the byzantine world 565 1204 london ucl press isbn 1 85728 495 x kazhdan alexander ed 1991 the oxford dictionary of byzantium oxford and new york oxford university press isbn 0 19 504652 8 sabin philip van wees hans whitby michael eds 2007 the cambridge history of greek and roman warfare volume 2 rome from the late republic to the late empire cambridge united kingdom and new york new york cambridge university press isbn 978 0 521 78274 6 treadgold warren t 1995 byzantium and its army 284 1081 stanford california stanford university press isbn 0 8047 3163 2 v t e byzantine empire topics history preceding roman empire later roman empire early 330 717 constantinian valentinianic era constantinian dynasty valentinianic dynasty theodosian era leonid era justinian era heraclian era byzantine dark ages twenty years anarchy middle 717 1204 isaurian era nikephorian era amorian era macedonian era doukid era komnenian era angelid era late 1204 1453 sack of constantinople fourth crusade frankokratia latin empire byzantine successor states nicaea epirus thessalonica morea trebizond theodoro palaiologan era decline of the byzantine empire fall of constantinople by modern region or territory albania anatolia armenia bulgaria corsica crete cyprus dalmatia egypt greece italy sardinia sicily maghreb malta mesopotamia palestine serbia spain iberian peninsula and balearic islands syria thrace governance central emperors coronation family tree empresses imperial bureaucracy medieval greek senate early praetorian prefects magister officiorum comes sacrarum largitionum comes rerum privatarum quaestor sacri palatii middle logothetes tou dromou sakellarios logothetes tou genikou logothetes tou stratiotikou chartoularios tou sakelliou chartoularios tou vestiariou epi tou eidikou protasekretis epi ton deeseon late megas logothetes mesazon provincial early praetorian prefectures dioceses provinces quaestura exercitus exarchate of ravenna exarchate of africa middle themata kleisourai bandon catepanates late kephale despotates foreign relations treaties diplomats diplomacy wars military army battle tactics battles beacon generals mercenaries military manuals military units revolts early late roman army east roman army foederati bucellarii scholae palatinae excubitors middle themata kleisourai tourma droungos bandon tagmata domestic of the schools hetaireia akritai varangian guard late komnenian army pronoia vestiaritai palaiologan army allagion paramonai grand domestic navy karabisianoi maritime themata cibyrrhaeot aegean sea samos dromon greek fire droungarios of the fleet megas doux admirals naval battles conflicts arab bulgarian georgian lombard norman ottoman persian rus seljuk serbian religion and law religion eastern orthodoxy byzantine rite hesychasm hayhurum patriarchate of constantinople saints oriental orthodoxy alexandrian rite armenian rite west syriac rite miaphysitism ecumenical councils arianism monophysitism paulicianism iconoclasm great schism bogomilism mount athos missionary activity bulgaria moravia serbs kievan rus jews law codex theodosianus corpus juris civilis code of justinian ekloge ton nomon basilika hexabiblos mutilation culture and society architecture secular sacred cross in square domes constantinople basilica cistern baths of zeuxippus blachernae palace chora church city walls great palace of constantinople hagia irene hagia sophia hippodrome hippodrome factions pammakaristos church prison of anemas thessalonica arch of galerius and rotunda byzantine bath hagia sophia hagios demetrios panagia chalkeon walls of thessaloniki ravenna san vitale sant apollinare in classe sant apollinare nuovo other locations daphni monastery hosios loukas nea moni of chios panagia gorgoepikoos saint catherine s monastery mystras art icons enamel glass mosaics early byzantine mosaics painters macedonian period art komnenian renaissance economy agriculture coinage mints trade silk silk road varangians dynatoi literature novel acritic songs digenes akritas alexander romance historians everyday life byzantines calendar cities cuisine dance dress families flags and insignia gardens hellenization music lyra octoechos population byzantine greeks women slavery death units of measurement science learning encyclopedias imperial library inventions medicine philosophy rhetoric scholars university university of constantinople impact byzantine commonwealth byzantine studies museums byzantinism cyrillic script neo byzantine architecture greek scholars in the renaissance third rome megali idea index outline portal v t e greek terms for administrative divisions modern decentralised administrations region regional unit municipality municipal unit community defunct general administrations prefecture super prefecture prefectural department pro...