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l is produced by vibrations of a fibrous mass suspended near the frog s larynx with larger masses allowing production of more chucks per whine 12 whine is a long frequency modulated sound with five harmonics fundamental frequency sweeping from 900 hz to 400 hz dominant frequency of about 700 hz and duration of about 300 ms chuck is a short high amplitude burst of sound with 15 harmonics fundamental frequency of about 200 hz dominant frequency of about 2500 hz 90 of its energy above 1500 hz and duration of about 45 ms with these components male túngara frogs can produce two types of calls simple call consisting only of whine and complex call consisting of whine immediately followed by up to six or seven chucks whine induces female phonotaxis and contributes to species recognition while chuck increases the call s attractiveness in mating 12 vocal sac of physalaemus pustulosus the main organ responsible for producing sound in túngara frogs is larynx supported by its fibrous mass hanging from the vocal cords and projecting from the larynx into the bronchi as the trunk muscles around the lungs contract the expelled air pushes through the larynx and vibrates the vocal cords folds and the larynx producing the sound air enters the buccal cavity passes through the vocal slits and inflates the vocal sac the inflation of vocal sac is also known to serve as a visual cue to receivers male túngara frogs produce chuck through their fibrous mass and their fibrous mass is larger than other species and populations that do not produce chuck also surgical excision of the fibrous mass inhibits the production of chuck despite the frog s attempt to produce complex call 15 16 the mating calls of túngara frogs increase their risk of falling victim to predators such as fringe lipped bats with more complex calls increasing the ability of bats to detect the frogs 17 complex calling by males however increases their likelihood of attracting females relative to simple calling 18 as such the mating calls observed in túngara frogs have evolved as a balance between the opposing evolutionary forces of increased reproductive success from producing mating calls and a lowered chance of survival due to predation 17 mate choice edit female preferences for calls play a significant role in túngara frog mating they favor complex calls over simple calls low frequency chucks over high frequency chucks and conspecific whine over heterospecific whine females prefer the mating call of frogs who produce chucks with lower frequencies if a female finds a male s call attractive she will use the call as well as ripples in the water caused by its production to locate her new mate female choice for complex calls can be explained by the tuning of the túngara frog s inner ear organs the amphibian papilla and the basilar papilla the frequency that the basilar papilla is most sensitive to is 2130 hz and the chuck s dominant frequency is about 2500 hz the smaller the frequency difference between the male s chuck frequency and the tuning of the basilar papilla the greater the neural excitation of the female thus females prefer the lower frequency chucks that are closer to the tuning frequency of the basilar papilla 19 female choice for low frequency chucks comes from female s preference for larger males providing reproductive benefit the size difference between the mates determines the fertilization rate in that decrease in the size difference leads to decrease in the number of unfertilized eggs and increase in fertilization rate due to the tendency of female túngara being larger than male túngara frogs larger males lessen the size gap with females and benefit the fertilization and since larger males have larger larynxes they produce lower frequency of sound chuck and whine consequently strong sexual dimorphism can be observed in larynx size until about 16 mm snout to vent length females and males have larynges of about the same size however above this point males show strong positive allometric growth in larynx size until the plateau of growth at about 24 mm snout to vent length around the time of the male s first call in the field this shows that male reproductive behavior is triggered at the full development of the larynx 20 female choice for conspecific whine comes from the lack of prediction between phylogenetic similarity of the túngara frog species and acoustic similarity of their calls also shared common ancestry is suggested to lead to shared auditory and neural responses compared to the former female choice female choice for conspecific whine has less significance due to the lack of overlap between the habitat of túngara frogs and the habitat of other physalaemus species decreasing the instances of avoiding the calls of close relatives 20 the phonotaxis experiment endorses the female call preference for complex calls and low frequency chucks in terms of female choice for complex calls the experiment is set up in a way that a female is placed equidistant between two speakers broadcasting series of test calls in terms of female choice for low frequency chucks the experiment is set up in a way that a female is given identical whines but the single chuck following the whine is in either low or high frequency the results show that females prefer whine followed by low frequency chuck additionally females prefer low frequency whine to high frequency whine 20 the test with reconstructed ancestral cells endorses the female call preference for conspecific whine the results show that females give strongest response to calls of phylogenetically closest species indicating the more significant influence of evolutionary history than acoustic similarity 20 recent research suggests that sexual calls from the males are influenced by their dietary conditions female frogs responded to unfed males calls less as time unfed increased 21 male male interactions edit engystomops pustulosus despite the benefit of satisfying the female choice and increasing mating success complex calls also follow with a cost of increased risk of predation and parasitism because frog eating bats trachops cirrhosus and blood sucking flies corethrella spp prefer complex calls to simple calls 20 like females these predators prefer complex calls and will use them to locate and prey upon male túngara frogs thus males have been found to alternate between complex and simple calls depending on the situation 20 males produce complex calls more often when there are other calling males nearby forming what is known as a chorus males that use such calling strategies are able to maximize the possibility of finding a mate and minimize predation risk 22 therefore the males must find a strategy that resolves the conflict between natural selection and sexual selection while portraying a trait that increases its attractiveness the male must also remain inconspicuous through strategic variance of call complexity when males are alone they produce mostly simple calls but when they are in choruses they increase their call complexity and produce complex calls research suggests the relationship between the chorus size and the costs and benefits of frog chorusing behavior the benefit of frog chorusing behavior is increased in larger chorus size because increase of chorus size leads to increase of operational sex ratio probability of mating and decrease of predation risk while predation rate and chorus size do not have a correlation predation risk and chorus size do have correlation the cost of frog chorusing behavior is increased in smaller chorus size as shown in the negative correlation between predation risk and chorus size the tendency of acoustically orienting predators to attack choruses influences the individual s predation risk in a way that when the predator appears in the site of chorusing the individual has a higher chance of getting attacked when there are not as many frogs in the site the cost benefit model of the frog chorusing behavior suggests the influence of the asymmetric benefits related to male size and behavior on the size of male túngara frogs in terms of joining the choruses 23 conservation edit within the extinction risk categories assigned by the iucn red list 24 25 engystomops pustulosus is listed as least concern of extinction 1 although its iucn status seems to lessen the concern of population conservation of túngara frogs 43 of species are experiencing decline which suggests this frog may be threatened in the near future 26 the major stressors of amphibian declines include the following habitat loss degradation pollution climate change and invasive species 26 among all causes habitat loss degradation and pollution are known to be the most important these causes also show cooccurrence in that intensified agricultural and urbanized landscape lead to both habitat change and increased pollutant release 26 however the specific effects of these causes on amphibians especially their health are largely unknown some research suggests the negative impact of agricultural sites on túngara frog health displayed by decreased egg number reduced hatching success and undersized smaller body size and male secondary sexual characteristics 26 such findings in research significantly relates to the conservation of amphibians since lower reproduction is likely to correlate with an accelerated population decline 26 references edit 1 2 3 iucn ssc amphibian specialist group 2020 engystomops pustulosus iucn red list of threatened species 2020 e t57272a53969023 doi 10 2305 iucn uk 2020 2 rlts t57272a53969023 en retrieved 12 november 2021 frost darrel r 2014 engystomops pustulosus cope 1864 amphibian species of the world an online reference 6 0 american museum of natural history retrieved 26 february 2014 ryan michael j guerra mónica a 1 october 2014 the mechanism of sound production in túngara frogs and its role in sexual selection and speciation current opinion in neurobiology si communication and language 28 54 59 doi 10 1016 j conb 2014 06 008 issn 0959 4388 pmid 25033110 s2cid 14153228 1 2 leigh egbert giles 1999 tropical forest ecology a view from barro colorado island oxford university press p 34 isbn 978 0 19 509603 3 cope edward drinker 1864 contributions to the herpetology of tropical america proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 16 180 166 181 via biodiversity library jiménez de la espada márcos 1872 nuevos batrácios americanos new american batrachians anales de la sociedad española de historia natural in spanish 1 85 88 via biodiversity library peters wilhelm c hartwig 1873 über eine neue schildkrötenart cinosternon effeldtii und einige andere neue oder weniger bekannte amphibien about new turtle species cinosternon sic effeldtii and some other new or lesser known amphibians monatsberichte der königlichen preussische akademie des wissenschaften zu berlin in german 1873 603 618 via biodiversity library taylor ryan c ryan michael joseph klein barrett anthony 2011 inter signal interaction and uncertain information in anuran multimodal signals current zoology 57 2 153 161 doi 10 1093 czoolo 57 2 153 hdl 11603 7389 via research gate 1 2 anderson nigel k gutierrez stephanie o bernal ximena e 2019 from forest to city urbanization modulates relative abundance of anti predator coloration journal of urban ecology 5 juz016 doi 10 1093 jue juz016 1 2 engystomops pustulosus tungara frog pdf the online guide to the animals of trinidad and tobago university of the west indies at st augustine retrieved 2024 02 11 naish darren tiny frogs and giant spiders best of friends scientific american blog network retrieved 2020 05 02 1 2 3 ryan m j 2010 01 01 túngara frog a model for sexual selection and communication in breed michael d moore janice eds encyclopedia of animal behavior oxford academic press pp 453 461 doi 10 1016 b978 0 08 045337 8 00033 4 isbn 978 0 08 045337 8 retrieved 2022 10 13 dalgetty laura kennedy malcolm w 2010 building a home from foam túngara frog foam nest architecture and three phase construction process biology letters 6 3 293 296 doi 10 1098 rsbl 2009 0934 pmc 2880057 pmid 20106853 akre karin l ryan michael j 2011 female túngara frogs elicit more complex mating signals from males behavioral ecology 22 4 846 853 doi 10 1093 beheco arr065 issn 1465 7279 ryan michael and monica guerra 2014 the mechanism of sound production in tungara frogs and its role in sexual selection and speciation current opinion in neurobiology 28 54 59 doi 10 1016 j conb 2014 06 008 pmid 25033110 dudley robert rand a stanley 1991 sound production and vocal sac inflation in the túngara frog physalaemus pustulosus leptodactylidae copeia 1991 2 460 470 doi 10 2307 1446594 issn 0045 8511 jstor 1446594 1 2 rand a stanley ryan michael j 12 january 1981 the adaptive significance of a complex vocal repertoire in a neotropical frog zeitschrift für tierpsychologie 57 3 4 209 214 doi 10 1111 j 1439 0310 1981 tb01923 x issn 0044 3573 retrieved 19 september 2026 via wiley online library ryan michael j rand a stanley 1 march 1990 the sensory basis of sexual selection for complex calls in the túngara frog physalaemus pustulosus sexual selection for sensory exploitation evolution 44 2 305 314 doi 10 1111 j 1558 5646 1990 tb05200 x retrieved 19 september 2026 via oxford academic ryan michael j rand a stanley 1990 the sensory basis of sexual selection for complex calls in the tungara frog physalaemus pustulosus sexual selection for sensory exploitation evolution 44 2 305 314 doi 10 2307 2409409 issn 0014 3820 jstor 2409409 pmid 28564368 1 2 3 4 5 6 page rachel a bernal ximena e 2006 12 05 túngara frogs current biology 16 23 r979 r980 bibcode 2006cbio 16 r979p doi 10 1016 j cub 2006 10 046 issn 0960 9822 pmid 17141600 s2cid 5337636 wilhite kyle o ryan michael j 2024 condition dependence in the sexual communication system of the túngara frog behavioral ecology and sociobiology 78 5 54 bibcode 2024becos 78 54w doi 10 1007 s00265 024 03470 7 baugh a t ryan m j 2010 the relative value of call embellishment in túngara frogs behavioral ecological sociobiology 65 2 359 367 doi 10 1007 s00265 010 1053 6 ryan michael j tuttle merlin d taft lucinda k 1 july 1981 the costs and benefits of frog chorusing behavior behavioral ecology and sociobiology 8 4 273 278 bibcode 1981becos 8 273r doi 10 1007 bf00299526 issn 1432 0762 s2cid 39431995 mace georgina m lande russell june 1991 assessing extinction threats toward a reevaluation of iucn threatened species categories conservation biology 5 2 148 157 bibcode 1991conbi 5 148m doi 10 1111 j 1523 1739 1991 tb00119 x issn 0888 8892 iucn red list categories and criteria version 3 1 ed gland switzerland iucn the world conservation union 2001 isbn 2 8317 0633 5 1 2 3 4 5 orton frances mangan stephanie newton laura marianes alexis 1 june 2022 non destructive methods to assess health of wild tropical frogs túngara frogs engystomops pustulosus in trinidad reveal negative impacts of agricultural land environmental...