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religious grievances requiring his remedy before they would approve any new legislation english overseas possessions edit main article english overseas possessions in the wars of the three kingdoms during the english civil war the english overseas possessions became highly involved in the channel islands the island of jersey and castle cornet in guernsey supported the king until a surrender with honour in december 1651 although the newer puritan settlements in north america notably massachusetts were dominated by parliamentarians the older colonies to the south sided with the crown friction between royalists most of whom were anglican and puritans in maryland came to a head in the battle of the severn the virginia company s settlements bermuda and virginia as well as antigua and barbados were conspicuous in their loyalty to the crown bermuda s independent puritans were expelled 13 14 settling the bahamas under william sayle as the eleutheran adventurers parliament passed an act for prohibiting trade with the barbadoes virginia bermuda and antego in october 1650 that prohibited all trade with the rebellious colonies of barbados antigua bermuda and virginia and granting permission to english privateers to seize any ships belonging to merchants including foreigners who traded with those colonies far to the north bermuda s regiment of militia and its coastal batteries prepared to resist an invasion that never came built up inside the natural defence of a nearly impassable barrier reef to fend off the might of spain these defences would have been a formidable obstacle for the parliamentary fleet sent in 1651 under the command of admiral sir george ayscue to subdue the trans atlantic colonies but after the fall of barbados the bermudians made a separate peace that respected the internal status quo the parliament of bermuda avoided the parliament of england s fate during the protectorate becoming one of the oldest continuous legislatures in the world 14 virginia s population swelled with cavaliers during and after the english civil war even so virginia puritan richard bennett was made governor answering to cromwell in 1652 followed by two more nominal commonwealth governors the loyalty of virginia s cavaliers to the crown was rewarded after the 1660 restoration of the monarchy when charles ii dubbed it the old dominion ireland edit meanwhile in the kingdom of ireland proclaimed such in 1541 but only fully conquered for the crown in 1603 tensions had also begun to mount thomas wentworth charles i s lord deputy of ireland angered catholics by enforcing new taxes while denying them full rights as subjects he further antagonised wealthy irish catholics by repeated initiatives to confiscate and transfer their lands to english colonists conditions became explosive in 1639 when wentworth offered irish catholics some reforms in return for their raising and funding an irish army led by protestant officers to put down the scottish rebellion the idea of an irish catholic army enforcing what many saw as already tyrannical government horrified both the scottish and the english parliaments which in response threatened to invade ireland wars edit see also bishops war irish rebellion of 1641 english civil war irish confederate wars and scotland in the wars of the three kingdoms this section relies on a single source please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed find sources wars of the three kingdoms news newspapers books scholar jstor january 2024 learn how and when to remove this message charles initial failure to end the bishops wars of 1639 and 1640 quickly persuaded the antagonists that force could serve them better than negotiation the imposition of bishops and other anglican practices to the scottish kirk were opposed by most scots who supported a presbyterian system of governance led by a general assembly and in individual churches by ministers and committees of elders the 1638 national covenant pledged to oppose such imposed innovations signatories were known as covenanters 15 king charles i and prince rupert before the battle of naseby in ireland alienated by church of england domination and frightened by the rhetoric of the english and scottish parliaments a small group of irish conspirators launched the irish rebellion of 1641 ostensibly in support of the king s rights the uprising featured widespread violent assaults on protestant communities in ireland both anglican and dissenter protestants in ulster whose practice was similar to the scottish kirk in england and scotland rumours spread that the killings had the king s sanction which for many foreshadowed their own fate if the king s irish troops landed in britain thus the english parliament refused to pay for a royal army to put down the rebellion in ireland instead parliament decided to raise its own armed forces the king did likewise rallying those royalists some of them members of parliament who believed their fortunes were best served by loyalty to the king the english civil war ignited in 1642 scottish covenanters as presbyterians there called themselves joined forces with the english parliament in late 1643 and played a major role in the ultimate parliamentary victory over the course of more than two years the king s forces were ground down by the efficiency of those of parliament including the new model army backed as they were by the financial muscle of the city of london on 5 may 1646 at southwell charles i surrendered to the scottish army besieging newark on trent what remained of the english and welsh royalist armies and garrisons surrendered piecemeal over the next few months 16 meanwhile the rebellious irish catholics formed their own government confederate ireland intending to help the royalists in return for religious toleration and political autonomy troops from england and scotland fought in ireland and irish confederate troops mounted an expedition to scotland in 1644 sparking the scottish civil war there the royalists gained a series of victories in 1644 1645 but were crushed after the main covenanter armies returned to scotland upon the end of the first english civil war the scots handed charles over to the english and returned to scotland the english parliament having paid them a large sum for their expenses in the english campaign after his surrender charles was approached by the scots the presbyterians in the english parliament and the grandees of the new model army all attempting to reach an accommodation with him and among themselves which would achieve peace while preserving the crown but now a breach between the new model army and parliament widened day by day until the puritans in parliament with allies among the scots and the remaining royalists saw themselves strong enough to challenge the army which began the second english civil war 17 the english and scots armies lovingly embrace each other the new model army vanquished the english royalists and parliamentarians as well as their scottish engager allies on account of his secret machinations with the scottish engagers charles was charged with treason against england 18 subsequently the grandees and their civilian supporters failed to reconcile with the king or the puritan majority in parliament the grandees acted and soldiers were used to purge the english parliament of those who opposed the army the resultant rump parliament of the long parliament then passed enabling legislation for putting charles i on trial for treason he was found guilty of treason against the english commons and was executed on 30 january 1649 19 after the execution of king charles i the rump parliament passed a series of acts declaring that england was a republic that the house of commons without the house of lords would sit as the legislature and that a council of state would act as the executive power in the other two kingdoms the execution of charles caused the warring parties to unite and they recognised charles ii as king of great britain france and ireland to deal with the threat to the english commonwealth posed by the two kingdoms ireland and scotland the rump parliament first appointed cromwell to invade and subdue ireland in august 1649 he landed an english army at rathmines shortly after the siege of dublin was abandoned by the royalists following the battle of rathmines then in late may 1650 cromwell left one army to continue the irish conquest and returned to england and to take command of a second english army which preemptively invaded scotland on 3 september 1650 he defeated the scottish covenanters at the battle of dunbar and his forces then occupied edinburgh and scotland south of the river forth cromwell was advancing the bulk of his army over the forth towards stirling when charles ii commanding a scottish royalist army stole a march on the english commander and invaded england from his base in scotland cromwell divided his forces leaving part in scotland to complete the conquest there then led the rest south in pursuit of charles ii 20 the royalist army failed to gather much support from english royalists as it moved south into england so instead of heading directly towards london and certain defeat charles aimed for worcester hoping that wales and the west and midlands of england would rise against the commonwealth this did not happen and one year to the day after the battle of dunbar the new model army and the english militia regiments vanquished the last royalist army of the english civil war at the battle of worcester on 3 september 1651 it was the last and most decisive battle in the wars of the three kingdoms 21 aftermath edit having defeated all organised opposition the grandees of the parliamentary new model army and their civilian supporters dominated the politics of all three nations for the next nine years see interregnum 1649 1660 as for england the rump parliament had already decreed it was a republic and a commonwealth ireland and scotland were now subjugated and ruled by military governors and constituent representatives from both nations were seated in the rump parliament of the protectorate where they were dominated by oliver cromwell the lord protector when cromwell died in 1658 control of the commonwealth became unstable in early 1660 general george monck commanding english occupation forces in scotland ordered his troops from the coldstream barracks marched them south into england and seized control of london by february 1660 22 there he accumulated allies and agreements among the english and london establishments including the newly constituted convention parliament to which he was elected a member 23 monck first a royalist campaigner then a parliamentary soldier now contrived the restoration of the monarchy monck arranged that the convention parliament would invite charles ii to return as king of the three realms which was done by act of parliament on 1 may 1660 the wars of the three kingdoms prefigured many of the changes that ultimately would shape modern britain but in the short term these conflicts in fact resolved little for the kingdoms and peoples the english commonwealth did achieve a notable compromise between the monarchy and republic which survived destabilising problems for nearly the next two hundred years in practice oliver cromwell exercised political power through his control over parliament s military forces but his legal position and provisions for his succession remained unclear even after he became lord protector none of the several constitutions proposed during this period was achieved thus the commonwealth and protectorate of the parliamentarians the wars victors left no significant new form of government in place after their time still in the long term two abiding legacies of british democracy were established during this period after the execution of king charles i for high treason no future british monarch could expect that their subjects would tolerate perceived despotism the divine right of kings no longer existed 24 the excesses of the new model army particularly those during the rule of the major generals left an abiding mistrust of military dictators and military rule which persists until today among peoples of british descent or national association c some english protestants experienced religious freedom during the interregnum but there was none for english catholics during the term of their control the puritan partisans abolished the church of england and the house of lords cromwell denounced the rump parliament and dissolved it by force 25 but he failed to establish an acceptable alternative nor did he and his supporters move in the direction of popular democracy as the more radical parliamentarians the levellers wanted during the interregnum the new model army occupied ireland and scotland in ireland the new government confiscated almost all lands belonging to irish catholics as punishment for the rebellion of 1641 harsh penal laws also restricted this community thousands of parliamentarian soldiers settled in ireland on confiscated lands the commonwealth abolished the parliaments of ireland and scotland in theory these countries had representation in the english parliament but as this body never held real powers representation was ineffective when cromwell died in 1658 the commonwealth fell apart but without major violence historians record that adroit politicians of the time especially george monck 26 prevailed over the looming crisis monck in particular was deemed the victor sine sanguine i e without blood of the restoration crisis 22 27 and in 1660 charles ii was restored as king of england scotland and ireland under the english restoration the political system returned to the prewar constitutional position although charles ii s declaration of breda in april 1660 had offered reconciliation and promised a general pardon for crimes committed during the english civil war the new regime executed or imprisoned for life those directly involved in the regicide of charles i royalists dug up cromwell s corpse and performed a posthumous execution the religiously and politically motivated individuals held responsible for the wars suffered harsh repression scotland and ireland regained their parliaments some irish retrieved confiscated lands and the new model army was disbanded however the issues which had caused the wars religion the powers of parliament vis á vis the king and the relationships between the three kingdoms remained unresolved or more accurately postponed only to re emerge as matters disputed again and leading to the glorious revolution of 1688 only later did the broader features of modern britain foreshadowed in the civil wars emerge permanently namely a protestant constitutional monarchy with a strong standing army under civilian control original research see also edit cromwellian conquest of ireland english civil war english overseas possessions in the w...