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antly being revised 8 one of the notable attempts at compiling an authoritative canon for literature in the english speaking world was the great books of the western world program this program developed in the middle third of the 20th century grew out of the curriculum at the university of chicago university president robert maynard hutchins and his collaborator mortimer adler developed a program that offered reading lists books and organizational strategies for reading clubs to the general public 18 19 20 an earlier attempt had been made in 1909 by harvard university president charles w eliot with the harvard classics a 51 volume anthology of classic works from world literature eliot s view was the same as that of scottish philosopher and historian thomas carlyle the true university of these days is a collection of books the hero as man of letters 1840 in the english speaking world edit british renaissance poetry edit main articles elizabethan literature and metaphysical poets the canon of renaissance english poetry of the 16th and early 17th centuries has always been in some form of flux towards the end of the 20th century the established canon was criticised especially by those who wished to expand it to include for example more women writers 21 however the central figures of the british renaissance canon remain edmund spenser sir philip sidney christopher marlowe william shakespeare ben jonson and john donne 22 spenser donne and jonson were major influences on 17th century poetry however poet john dryden condemned aspects of the metaphysical poets in his criticism in the 18th century metaphysical poetry fell into further disrepute 23 while the interest in elizabethan poetry was rekindled through the scholarship of thomas warton and others however the canon of renaissance poetry was formed in the victorian period with anthologies like palgrave s golden treasury 24 in the twentieth century t s eliot and yvor winters were two literary critics who were especially concerned with revising the canon of renaissance english literature eliot for example championed poet sir john davies in an article in the times literary supplement in 1926 during the course of the 1920s eliot did much to establish the importance of the metaphysical school both through his critical writing and by applying their method in his own work however by 1961 a alvarez was commenting that it may perhaps be a little late in the day to be writing about the metaphysicals the great vogue for donne passed with the passing of the anglo american experimental movement in modern poetry 25 two decades later a hostile view was expressed that emphasis on their importance had been an attempt by eliot and his followers to impose a high anglican and royalist literary history on 17th century english poetry 26 the american critic yvor winters suggested in 1939 an alternative canon of elizabethan poetry 27 which would exclude the famous representatives of the petrarchan school of poetry represented by sir philip sidney and edmund spenser winters claimed that the native or plain style anti petrarchan movement had been undervalued and argued that george gascoigne 1525 1577 deserves to be ranked among the six or seven greatest lyric poets of the century and perhaps higher 28 towards the end of the 20th century the established canon was increasingly disputed 21 expansion of the literary canon in the 20th century edit in the twentieth century there was a general reassessment of the literary canon including women s writing post colonial literatures gay and lesbian literature writing by racialized minorities working people s writing and the cultural productions of historically marginalized groups this reassessment has resulted in a wholesale expansion of what is considered literature and genres hitherto not regarded as literary such as children s writing journals letters travel writing and many others are now the subjects of scholarly interest 29 30 31 the western literary canon has also expanded to include the literature of asia africa the middle east and south america writers from africa turkey china egypt peru colombia japan etc have received nobel prizes since the late 1960s writers from asia and africa have also been nominated for and won the booker prize in recent years feminism and the literary canon edit see also écriture féminine list of american feminist literature list of feminist literature and list of feminist poets jean paul sartre and simone de beauvoir at balzac memorial susan hardy aitken argues that the western canon has maintained itself by excluding and marginalising women whilst idealising the works of men 32 where women s work is introduced it can be considered inappropriately rather than recognising the importance of their work a work s greatness is judged against socially situated factors which exclude women whilst being portrayed as an intellectual approach 33 the feminist movement produced feminist fiction and non fiction and created new interest in women s writing it also prompted a general reevaluation of women s historical and academic contributions in response to the belief that women s lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scholarly interest 29 however in britain and america at least women had achieved major literary success from the late eighteenth century and many major nineteenth century british novelists were women including jane austen the brontë family elizabeth gaskell and george eliot there were also three major female poets elizabeth barrett browning 34 christina rossetti and emily dickinson 35 36 in the twentieth century there were also many major female writers including katherine mansfield dorothy richardson virginia woolf eudora welty and marianne moore notable female writers in france include colette simone de beauvoir marguerite yourcenar nathalie sarraute marguerite duras and françoise sagan much of the early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women virago press began to publish its large list of 19th and early 20th century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation african american authors edit nobel laureate wole soyinka in 2015 in the twentieth century the western literary canon started to include not only african american writers but also writers from the wider african diaspora in britain france latin america and africa this correlated largely with the shift in social and political views during the civil rights movement in the united states the first global recognition came in 1950 when gwendolyn brooks was the first african american to win a pulitzer prize for literature american toni morrison was the first african american woman to win the nobel prize in literature in 1993 some early african american writers were inspired to defy ubiquitous racial prejudice by proving themselves equal to european american authors as henry louis gates jr has said it is fair to describe the subtext of the history of black letters as this urge to refute the claim that because blacks had no written traditions they were bearers of an inferior culture 37 african american writers were also attempting to subvert the literary and power traditions of the united states some scholars assert that writing has traditionally been seen as something defined by the dominant culture as a white male activity 37 this means that in american society literary acceptance has traditionally been intimately tied in with the very power dynamics which perpetrated such evils as racial discrimination by borrowing from and incorporating the non written oral traditions and folk life of the african diaspora african american literature broke the mystique of connection between literary authority and patriarchal power 38 in producing their own literature african americans were able to establish their own literary traditions devoid of the european intellectual filter this view of african american literature as a tool in the struggle for african american political and cultural liberation has been asserted for decades most famously by w e b du bois 39 latin america edit garcía márquez signing a copy of one hundred years of solitude in havana cuba octavio paz lozano 1914 1998 was a mexican poet and diplomat for his body of work he was awarded the 1981 miguel de cervantes prize the 1982 neustadt international prize for literature and the 1990 nobel prize in literature gabriel garcía márquez 40 1927 2014 was a colombian novelist short story writer screenwriter and journalist considered one of the most significant authors of the 20th century and one of the best in the spanish language he was awarded the 1972 neustadt international prize for literature and the 1982 nobel prize in literature 41 garcía márquez started as a journalist and wrote many acclaimed non fiction works and short stories but is best known for his novels such as one hundred years of solitude 1967 the autumn of the patriarch 1975 and love in the time of cholera 1985 his works have achieved significant critical acclaim and widespread commercial success most notably for popularizing a literary style labeled as magic realism which uses magical elements and events in otherwise ordinary and realistic situations some of his works are set in a fictional village called macondo the town mainly inspired by his birthplace aracataca and most of them explore the theme of solitude when garcía márquez died in april 2014 juan manuel santos the president of colombia described him as the greatest colombian who ever lived 42 mario vargas llosa 1936 2025 43 was a peruvian writer politician journalist essayist college professor and recipient of the 2010 nobel prize in literature 44 vargas llosa was one of latin america s most significant novelists and essayists and one of the leading writers of his generation some critics consider him to have had a larger international impact and worldwide audience than any other writer of the latin american boom 45 upon announcing the 2010 nobel prize in literature the swedish academy said it had been given to vargas llosa for his cartography of structures of power and his trenchant images of the individual s resistance revolt and defeat 46 canon of philosophers edit see also list of important publications in philosophy this section has multiple issues please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page learn how and when to remove these messages this article s factual accuracy is disputed relevant discussion may be found on the talk page please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced december 2021 learn how and when to remove this message this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed find sources western canon news newspapers books scholar jstor november 2025 learn how and when to remove this message learn how and when to remove this message plato luni marble roman copy of the portrait made by silanion ca 370 bc for the academia in athens many philosophers today agree that greek philosophy has influenced much of western culture since its inception alfred north whitehead once noted the safest general characterization of the european philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to plato 47 clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient greek and hellenistic philosophers to early islamic philosophy the european renaissance and the age of enlightenment 48 plato was a philosopher in classical greece and the founder of the academy in athens he is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy especially the western tradition 49 50 aristotle was an ancient greek philosopher his writings cover many subjects including physics biology zoology metaphysics logic ethics aesthetics rhetoric linguistics politics and government and constitute the first comprehensive system of western philosophy 51 aristotle s views on physical science had a profound influence on medieval scholarship their influence extended from late antiquity into the renaissance and his views were not replaced systematically until the enlightenment and the development of theories such as classical mechanics in metaphysics aristotelianism profoundly influenced judeo islamic philosophical and theological thought during the middle ages and continues to influence christian theology especially the neoplatonism of the early church and the scholastic tradition of the roman catholic church aristotle was well known among medieval muslim intellectuals and revered as the first teacher arabic المعلم الأول his ethics though always influential gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics boethius on the consolation of philosophy latin de consolatione philosophiae is often acclaimed as a central work from late antiquity at the cusp of the early medieval period that remained influential throughout the middle ages of boethius it has been said that along with augustine and aristotle he is the fundamental philosophical and theological author in the latin tradition 52 edward gibbon wrote of the consolation that it is a golden volume not unworthy of the leisure of plato or tully 53 and bertrand russell wrote that by merit of the same boethius would have been remarkable in any age in the age in which he lived he is utterly amazing 54 the vast body of christian philosophy is typically represented on reading lists mainly by augustine of hippo and thomas aquinas the academic canon of early modern philosophy generally includes descartes spinoza leibniz locke berkeley hume and kant 55 medieval philosophy edit major philosophers of the middle ages include jean buridan thomas aquinas meister eckhart peter abelard and heloise christine de pizan and boethius renaissance philosophy edit major philosophers of the renaissance include niccolò machiavelli michel de montaigne baldassare castiglione justus lipsius pico della mirandola nicholas of cusa and giordano bruno marsilio ficino 56 and gemistos plethon 57 seventeenth century philosophers edit frontispiece of hobbes s leviathan the seventeenth century was important for philosophy and the major figures were francis bacon thomas hobbes rené descartes blaise pascal baruch spinoza baltasar gracián benito jerónimo feijóo y montenegro françois de la rochefoucauld jean de la bruyère tommaso campanella john locke and gottfried wilhelm leibniz 58 eighteenth century philosophers edit major philosophers of the eighteenth century include george berkeley montesquieu voltaire david hume giambattista vico 59 jean jacques rousseau denis diderot immanuel kant cesare beccaria adam smith gaspar melchor de jovellanos edmund burke thomas paine mary wollstonecraft nicolas de condorcet and jeremy bentham 58 nineteenth century philosophers edit important nineteenth century philoso...