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faust notes the absence of pig bones indicating an ethnic marker of the israelites during the iron age ii before the 5th century bce 63 see also edit canaanite religion henotheism jewish views on religious pluralism kenite hypothesis origins of judaism two house theology elephantine papyri and ostraca notes edit thus israelite religion in the settlement period appears strongly rooted in the local canaanite tradition 5 recent critical accounts provide a more detailed socio historical context for monotheism s development and have fewer difficulties in explaining pre exilic religious practice they do not assume that israelite religion began with a monotheistic heritage as its core but instead hold that the early israelites had similar beliefs to their neighbors in late second millennium palestine such as the belief in a small functional and differentiated pantheon 6 both the texts of the hb ot and the extrabiblical evidence show a strong coincidence for the veneration of el baʿal mot šalim the moon god yariḥ mlk milku and asherah as yhwh s consort alongside the national god 9 a possible candidate for an earlier occurrence of the name yahweh is the gezer calendar commonly dated to the 10th century bce 24 which is believed to contain the partially damaged signature of the scribe who wrote it usually reconstructed as abijah if this reconstruction is indeed accurate it would place yahweh s earliest explicit attestation at least a century before the mesha stele still because the name is incomplete its status as a yahwistic theophoric name is uncertain references edit citations edit miller hayes 1986 p 109 110 1 2 miller hayes 1986 p 110 1 2 niehr 1995 p 59 1 2 miller 2000 p 1 1 2 schmidt 2016 1 2 3 macdonald 2021 1 2 3 niehr 1995 pp 54 55 sass 2014 pp 47 66 1 2 schmidt 2025 1 2 3 bennett 2002 p 83 1 2 3 davies 2010 p 112 miller 2000 p 88 miller 2000 p 90 1 2 3 albertz 1994 p 61 betz 2000 p 917 with the work of the second isaiah toward the end of the babylonian exile israelite monotheism took on a more forceful form of expression yahweh is proclaimed as the creator of the cosmos isa 40 21 23 28 foreign deities do not exist there is only one true god yahweh 40 12 31 43 8 13 46 5 13 1 2 3 moore kelle 2011 p 402 1 2 pummer 2016 p 25 smith 2003 p 146 1 2 smith 2002 p 32 moore kelle 2011 p 127 lewis 2020 p 211 1 2 dever 2003b p 125 miller 2000 p 40 aaron demsky 2007 reading northwest semitic inscriptions near eastern archaeology 70 2 frevel christian 2021 when and from where did yhwh emerge some reflections on early yahwism in israel and judah entangled religions 12 2 doi 10 46586 er 12 2021 8776 hdl 2263 84039 via rub moore kelle 2011 pp 113 114 126 127 moore kelle 2011 pp 113 114 hess 2020 p 248 249 1 2 smith 2001 pp 141 142 146 147 albertz 2012 p 362 lewis 2020 pp 73 118 mclaughlin john l 2016 monolatry what are they saying about ancient israelite religion paulist press isbn 978 1 58768 651 1 retrieved 2 january 2026 smith 2001b pp 233 fn 118 smith 2016 p 287 moore kelle 2011 p 397 adler yonatan 4 december 2025 between yahwism and judaism judean cult and culture during the early hellenistic period 332 175 bce cambridge university press isbn 978 1 009 45962 4 retrieved 4 january 2026 there appear to be certain indications albeit somewhat speculative that the noncentralized nonexclusive yahwism of the iron age and persian era continued to characterize judean cult well into the early hellenistic period if it is preferable to speak of yahwism rather than judaism when discussing the persian period we should probably retain this preference when discussing the early hellenstic period as well p 65 66 sommer 2009 p 145 hess 2020 p 251 smith 2002 p 2 day 2002 p 143 ackerman 2022 p 342 barker 2012 pp 154 157 handy 1995 pp 39 40 ackerman 2022b p 16 barker 2012 p 41 handy 1995 p 41 meier 1999 p 45 46 smith 2002 p 66 smith 2002 p 47 adler yonatan 4 december 2025 between yahwism and judaism judean cult and culture during the early hellenistic period 332 175 bce cambridge university press pp 43 45 isbn 978 1 009 45962 4 retrieved 3 january 2026 albertz 1994 p 89 gorman 2000 p 458 davies rogerson 2005 pp 158 165 davies rogerson 2005 pp 151 152 cohen 1999 p 302 pierce keimer 2022 pp 468 469 one or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain chisholm hugh ed 1911 high place encyclopædia britannica vol 13 11th ed cambridge university press pp 456 457 adler 2025 p 40 41 niditch 1993 p 47 ackerman 1992 p 137 gnuse 1997 p 118 adler yonatan 15 november 2022 the origins of judaism an archaeological historical reappraisal yale university press pp 67 75 isbn 978 0 300 26837 9 retrieved 3 january 2026 faust avraham ludlum ruth 2012 the archaeology of israelite society in iron age ii penn state university press doi 10 5325 j ctv1bxgz6f isbn 978 1 57506 179 5 jstor 10 5325 j ctv1bxgz6f bibliography edit ackerman susan 1992 under every green tree popular religion in sixth century judah scholars press isbn 978 1 57506 915 9 ackerman susan 2022 women and the religion of ancient israel anchor yale reference library yale university press isbn 978 0 300 26488 3 ackerman susan 2022b gods goddesses and the women who serve them wm b eerdmans publishing isbn 978 1 4674 6321 8 albertz rainer 1994 a history of israelite religion volume i from the beginnings to the end of the monarchy westminster john knox press isbn 978 0 664 22719 7 albertz rainer 2012 personal names and family religion in albertz rainer schmitt rüdiger eds family and household religion in ancient israel and the levant penn state press isbn 978 1 57506 668 4 allen spencer l 2015 the splintered divine a study of istar baal and yahweh divine names and divine multiplicity in the ancient near east de gruyter isbn 978 1 5015 0022 0 barker margaret 1992 the great angel a study of israel s second god westminster john knox press isbn 978 0 664 25395 0 barker margaret 2012 the lady in the temple the mother of the lord vol 1 london bloomsbury t t clark isbn 978 0 567 36246 9 bennett harold v 2002 injustice made legal deuteronomic law and the plight of widows strangers and orphans in ancient israel eerdmans isbn 978 0 8028 3909 1 betz arnold gottfried 2000 monotheism in freedman david noel myer allen c eds eerdmans dictionary of the bible eerdmans isbn 90 5356 503 5 becking bob 2021 continuity and discontinuity after the exile in korpel m c a becking bob eds the crisis of israelite religion brill isbn 978 1 57506 083 5 cohen shaye j d 1999 the temple and the synagogue in finkelstein louis davies w d horbury william eds the cambridge history of judaism volume 3 the early roman period cambridge university press isbn 978 0 521 24377 3 cook stephen l 2004 the social roots of biblical yahwism society of biblical lit isbn 978 1 58983 098 1 retrieved 3 december 2025 darby erin 2014 interpreting judean pillar figurines gender and empire in judean apotropaic ritual mohr siebeck isbn 978 3 16 152492 9 davies philip r rogerson john 2005 the old testament world westminster john knox press isbn 978 0 567 08488 0 davies philip r 2010 urban religion and rural religion in stavrakopoulou francesca barton john eds religious diversity in ancient israel and judah continuum international publishing group isbn 978 0 567 03216 4 day john 2002 yahweh and the gods and goddesses of canaan journal for the study of the old testament supplement series vol 265 sheffield academic press doi 10 2307 3217888 isbn 978 0 567 53783 6 jstor 3217888 s2cid 161791734 dever william g 2003a religion and cult in the levant in richard suzanne ed near eastern archaeology a reader eisenbrauns isbn 978 1 57506 083 5 dever william g 2003b who were the early israelites and where did they come from eerdmans isbn 978 0 8028 4416 3 dever william g 2005 did god have a wife archaeology and folk religion in ancient israel eerdmans isbn 978 0 8028 2852 1 eakin frank e jr 1971 the religion and culture of israel boston allyn and bacon gorman frank h jr 2000 feasts festivals in freedman david noel myers allen c eds eerdmans dictionary of the bible amsterdam university press isbn 978 1 57506 083 5 gnuse robert karl 1997 no other gods emergent monotheism in israel journal for the study of the old testament supplement series vol 241 sheffield academic press isbn 978 0 567 37415 8 gnuse robert karl 1999 the emergence of monotheism in ancient israel a survey of recent scholarship religion 29 4 315 36 doi 10 1006 reli 1999 0198 handy lowell k 1995 the appearance of pantheon in judah in edelman diana vikander ed the triumph of elohim from yahwisms to judaisms peeters publishers isbn 90 5356 503 5 hess richard s 2020 yahwistic religion in the assyrian and babylonian periods in kelle brad e strawn brent a eds the oxford handbook of the historical books of the hebrew bible oxford university press isbn 978 0 19 026116 0 lewis theodore j 2020 the origin and character of god oxford university press isbn 978 0 19 007254 4 macdonald nathan 2021 monolatry encyclopedia of the bible and its reception online vol 19 doi 10 1515 ebr monolatry mckenzie john l 1990 aspects of old testament thought in brown raymond e fitzmyer joseph a murphy roland e eds the new jerome biblical commentary new jersey prentice hall 1287 s v 77 17 mettinger tryggve n d 2006 a conversation with my critics cultic image or aniconism in the first temple in amit yaira naʼaman nadav eds essays on ancient israel in its near eastern context eisenbrauns isbn 978 1 57506 128 3 macdonald nathan 2007 aniconism in the old testament in gordon r p ed the god of israel cambridge university press isbn 978 0 521 87365 9 meier s a 1999 angel i in van der toorn karel becking bob van der horst pieter willem eds dictionary of deities and demons in the bible eerdmans isbn 978 0 8028 2491 2 miller patrick d 2000 the religion of ancient israel westminster john knox press isbn 978 0 664 22145 4 mcconville j g 2008 god and earthly power an old testament political theology a c black isbn 978 0 567 04570 6 miller james m hayes john h 1986 a history of ancient israel and judah westminster john knox press isbn 978 0 664 21262 9 moore megan bishop kelle brad e 2011 biblical history and israel s past the changing study of the bible and history eerdmans isbn 978 0 8028 6260 0 niditch susan 1993 war in the hebrew bible a study in the ethics of violence oxford university press isbn 978 0 19 507638 7 niehr herbert 1995 the rise of yhwh in judahite and israelite religion in edelman diana vikander ed the triumph of elohim from yahwisms to judaisms peeters publishers isbn 90 5356 503 5 pakkala juha 2017 the origins of yahwism from the perspective of deuteronomism in oorschot jürgen van witte markus eds the origins of yahwism beihefte zur zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche wissenschaft de gruyter doi 10 1515 9783110448221 isbn 978 3 11 044711 8 peters francis e esposito john l 2006 the children of abraham judaism christianity islam princeton university press isbn 978 0 691 12769 9 petersen allan rosengren 1998 the royal god enthronement festivals in ancient israel and ugarit a c black isbn 978 1 85075 864 8 pierce george a keimer kyle h 2022 the archaeology of israelite cult yahwisms across space and time in keimer kyle h pierce george a eds the ancient israelite world taylor francis isbn 978 1 000 77324 8 pummer reinhard 2016 the samaritans a profile wm b eerdmans publishing isbn 978 0 8028 6768 1 sass benjamin 2014 on epigraphic hebrew ʾšr and ʾšrh and on biblical asherah transeuphratène j elayi j m durand eds bible et proche orient mélanges andré lemaire 3 vol transeuphratène 44 46 pendé gabalda 2014 46 47 66 with pls 4 5 on 189 190 issn 0996 5904 schmidt rüdiger 2016 israelite religion encyclopedia of the bible and its reception online vol 13 de gruyter doi 10 1515 ebr israelitereligion schmidt rüdiger 2025 polytheism encyclopedia of the bible and its reception online vol 24 de gruyter doi 10 1515 ebr polytheism smith mark s 2000 el in freedman david noel myer allen c eds eerdmans dictionary of the bible eerdmans isbn 978 90 5356 503 2 smith mark s 2001 the origins of biblical monotheism israel s polytheistic background and the ugaritic texts oxford university press isbn 978 0 19 516768 9 smith mark s 2001b untold stories the bible and ugaritic studies in the twentieth century hendrickson publishers isbn 978 1 56563 575 3 retrieved 3 january 2026 smith mark s 2002 the early history of god yahweh and the other deities in ancient israel 2nd ed eerdmans isbn 978 0 8028 3972 5 smith mark s 2003 the origins of biblical monotheism israel s polytheistic background and the ugaritic texts oxford university press usa isbn 978 0 19 516768 9 retrieved 3 december 2025 smith mark s 2010 god in translation deities in cross cultural discourse in the biblical world eerdmans isbn 978 0 8028 6433 8 smith mark s 2016 monotheism and the redefinition of divinity in ancient israel in niditch susan ed the wiley blackwell companion to ancient israel john wiley sons isbn 978 0 470 65677 8 smith mark s 2017 yhwh s original character questions about an unknown god in van oorschot jürgen witte markus eds the origins of yahwism beihefte zur zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche wissenschaft vol 484 de gruyter isbn 978 3 11 042538 3 sommer benjamin d 2009 the bodies of god and the world of ancient israel cambridge university press isbn 978 1 139 47778 9 von rad gerhard brueggemann walter 2001 a history of jahwism old testament theology the theology of israel s historical traditions the old testament library vol 1 louisville kentucky westminster john knox press pp 1 102 isbn 0 664 22407 5 vriezen t c van der woude simon adam 2005 ancient israelite and early jewish literature translated by doyle brian leiden brill publishers isbn 978 90 04 12427 1 v t e ancient semitic and mesopotamian religion religions of the ancient near east deities arabian amm a ra abgal al lat al qaum almaqah anbay ʿaṯtar basamum dhu l khalasa dhu samawi dushara haukim hubal isāf and nā ila kahl manaf manāt nasr nuha quzah rahmanan ruda sa d shams samas syn suwa ta lab theandrios al uzzá wadd ya uq yaghūth yatha levantine canaanite ugaritic adonis anat arsay asherah ashima astarte atargatis ʿaṯtar baʿalat gebal baʿal baʿal berit baʿal ḥammon baʿal marqod baʿal ṣapon baalshamin baʿalshamem chemosh dagan el elohim elyon eshmun haddu kothar wa khasis kotharat melqart milcom misor mot nikkal qedesh qos resheph sakkun shahar shalim shapshu sydyk tanit yahweh yam yarikh mesopotamian abzu apsu adad amurru antu anu anshar ashur bes dumuzid enki ea enlil ereshkigal geshtinanna inanna ishtar ki kingu kishar lahamu lahmu marduk mummu nabu nammu nanna sin nergal ningishzida ninhursag ninlil tiamat utu shamash myths portal v t e history of religion timeline research evolutionary origin of religions evolutionary psychology of religion history of theology roman school historical religions prehistoric paleolithic near east egyptian semitic manichaeism mesopotamian mi...