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ng lifetime of 133 ps at 10 k 39 among the tetrahedrally bonded semiconductors it has been stated that zno has the highest piezoelectric tensor or at least one comparable to that of gan and aln 40 this property makes it a technologically important material for many piezoelectrical applications which require a large electromechanical coupling therefore zno in the form of thin film has been one of the most studied and used resonator materials for thin film bulk acoustic resonators 41 electronic and optical properties edit favourable properties of zinc oxide include good transparency high electron mobility wide band gap and strong room temperature luminescence those properties make zno valuable for a variety of emerging applications transparent electrodes in liquid crystal displays 42 energy saving or heat protecting windows 25 and electronics as thin film transistors and light emitting diodes 43 zno is a semiconductor of the ii vi semiconductor group and it has a relatively wide direct band gap of 3 3 ev at room temperature advantages associated with a wide band gap include higher breakdown voltages ability to sustain large electric fields lower electronic noise and high temperature and high power operation the band gap of zno can further be tuned to 3 4 ev by its alloying with magnesium oxide or cadmium oxide 13 due to this large band gap there have been efforts to create visibly transparent solar cells utilising zno as a light absorbing layer however these solar cells have so far proven highly inefficient 44 most zno has n type character even in the absence of intentional doping 13 nonstoichiometry is typically the origin of this n type character but the subject remains controversial 45 an alternative explanation has been proposed based on theoretical calculations that unintentional substitutional hydrogen impurities are responsible 46 controllable n type doping is easily achieved by substituting zn with group iii elements such as al ga in or by substituting oxygen with group vii elements chlorine or iodine 47 reliable p type doping of zno remains difficult this problem originates from low solubility of p type dopants and their compensation by abundant n type impurities this problem is observed with gan and znse measurement of p type in intrinsically n type material is complicated by the inhomogeneity of samples 48 current limitations to p doping limit electronic and optoelectronic applications of zno which usually require junctions of n type and p type material known p type dopants include group i elements li na k group v elements n p and as as well as copper and silver however many of these form deep acceptors and do not produce significant p type conduction at room temperature 13 electron mobility of zno strongly varies with temperature and has a maximum of 2000 cm 2 v s at 80 k 49 data on hole mobility are scarce with values in the range 5 30 cm 2 v s 50 zno discs acting as a varistor are the active material in most surge arresters 51 52 zinc oxide is noted for its strongly nonlinear optical properties especially in bulk the nonlinearity of zno nanoparticles can be fine tuned according to their size 53 production edit see also zinc smelting for industrial use zno is produced at levels of 10 5 tons per year 25 by three main processes 24 indirect process edit in the indirect or french process metallic zinc is melted in a graphite crucible and vaporized at temperatures above 907 c typically around 1000 c zinc vapor reacts with the oxygen in the air to give zno 54 accompanied by a drop in its temperature and bright luminescence zinc oxide particles are transported into a cooling duct and collected in a bag house this indirect method was popularized by edme jean leclaire of paris in 1844 and therefore is commonly known as the french process its product normally consists of agglomerated zinc oxide particles with an average size of 0 1 to a few micrometers by weight most of the world s zinc oxide is manufactured via french process citation needed direct process edit the direct or american process starts with diverse contaminated zinc composites such as zinc ores or smelter by products the zinc precursors are reduced carbothermal reduction by heating with a source of carbon such as anthracite to produce zinc vapor which is then oxidized as in the indirect process because of the lower purity of the source material the final product is also of lower quality in the direct process as compared to the indirect one 54 wet chemical process edit a small amount of industrial production involves wet chemical processes which start with aqueous solutions of zinc salts from which zinc carbonate or zinc hydroxide is precipitated the solid precipitate is then calcined at temperatures around 800 c citation needed laboratory synthesis edit the red and green colors of these synthetic zno crystals result from different concentrations of oxygen vacancies 55 numerous specialised methods exist for producing zno for scientific studies and niche applications these methods can be classified by the resulting zno form bulk thin film nanowire temperature low that is close to room temperature or high that is t 1000 c process type vapor deposition or growth from solution and other parameters citation needed large single crystals many cubic centimeters can be grown by the gas transport vapor phase deposition hydrothermal synthesis 37 55 56 or melt growth 2 however because of the high vapor pressure of zno growth from the melt is problematic growth by gas transport is difficult to control leaving the hydrothermal method as a preference 2 thin films can be produced by a variety of methods including chemical vapor deposition 57 metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy electrodeposition sputtering spray pyrolysis thermal oxidation 58 sol gel synthesis atomic layer deposition and pulsed laser deposition 59 zinc oxide can be produced in bulk by precipitation from zinc compounds mainly zinc acetate in various solutions such as aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonium carbonate 60 synthetic methods characterized in literature since the year 2000 aim to produce zno particles with high surface area and minimal size distribution including precipitation mechanochemical sol gel microwave and emulsion methods 61 zno nanostructures edit nanostructures of zno can be synthesized into a variety of morphologies including nanowires nanorods tetrapods nanobelts nanoflowers nanoparticles etc nanostructures can be obtained with most above mentioned techniques at certain conditions and also with the vapor liquid solid method 37 62 63 the synthesis is typically carried out at temperatures of about 90 c in an equimolar aqueous solution of zinc nitrate and hexamine the latter providing the basic environment certain additives such as polyethylene glycol or polyethylenimine can improve the aspect ratio of the zno nanowires 64 doping of the zno nanowires has been achieved by adding other metal nitrates to the growth solution 65 the morphology of the resulting nanostructures can be tuned by changing the parameters relating to the precursor composition such as the zinc concentration and ph or to the thermal treatment such as the temperature and heating rate 66 aligned zno nanowires on pre seeded silicon glass and gallium nitride substrates have been grown using aqueous zinc salts such as zinc nitrate and zinc acetate in basic environments 67 pre seeding substrates with zno creates sites for homogeneous nucleation of zno crystal during the synthesis common pre seeding methods include in situ thermal decomposition of zinc acetate crystallites spin coating of zno nanoparticles and the use of physical vapor deposition methods to deposit zno thin films 68 69 pre seeding can be performed in conjunction with top down patterning methods such as electron beam lithography and nanosphere lithography to designate nucleation sites prior to growth aligned zno nanowires can be used in dye sensitized solar cells and field emission devices 70 71 applications edit the applications of zinc oxide powder are numerous and the principal ones are summarized below most applications exploit the reactivity of the oxide as a precursor to other zinc compounds for material science applications zinc oxide has high refractive index high thermal conductivity binding antibacterial and uv protection properties consequently it is added into materials and products including plastics ceramics glass cement 72 rubber lubricants 12 paints ointments adhesive sealants concrete manufacturing pigments foods batteries ferrites and fire retardants 73 rubber industry edit between 50 and 60 of zno use is in the rubber industry 74 zinc oxide along with stearic acid is used in the sulfur vulcanization of rubber 24 75 zno additives in the form of nanoparticles are used in rubber as a pigment 76 and to enhance its durability 77 and have been used in composite rubber materials such as those based on montmorillonite to impart germicidal properties 78 ceramic industry edit ceramic industry consumes a significant amount of zinc oxide in particular in ceramic glaze and frit compositions the relatively high heat capacity thermal conductivity and high temperature stability of zno coupled with a comparatively low coefficient of expansion are desirable properties in the production of ceramics zno affects the melting point and optical properties of the glazes enamels and ceramic formulations zinc oxide as a low expansion secondary flux improves the elasticity of glazes by reducing the change in viscosity as a function of temperature and helps prevent crazing and shivering by substituting zno for bao and pbo the heat capacity is decreased and the thermal conductivity is increased zinc in small amounts improves the development of glossy and brilliant surfaces however in moderate to high amounts it produces matte and crystalline surfaces with regard to color zinc has a complicated influence 74 medicine edit skin treatment edit zinc oxide as a mixture with about 0 5 iron iii oxide fe 2 o 3 is called calamine and is used in calamine lotion a topical skin treatment 79 historically the name calamine was ascribed to a mineral that contained zinc used in powdered form as medicine 80 but it was determined in 1803 that ore described as calamine was actually a mixture of the zinc minerals smithsonite and hemimorphite 81 zinc oxide is widely used to treat a variety of skin conditions including atopic dermatitis contact dermatitis itching due to eczema diaper rash and acne 82 it is used in products such as baby powder and barrier creams to treat diaper rashes calamine cream anti dandruff shampoos and antiseptic ointments 18 83 it is often combined with castor oil to form an emollient and astringent zinc and castor oil cream commonly used to treat infants 84 85 it is also a component in tape called zinc oxide tape used by athletes as a bandage to prevent soft tissue damage during workouts 86 antibacterial edit zinc oxide is used in mouthwash products and toothpastes as an anti bacterial agent proposed to prevent plaque and tartar formation 87 and to control bad breath by reducing the volatile gases and volatile sulfur compounds vsc in the mouth 88 along with zinc oxide or zinc salts these products also commonly contain other active ingredients such as cetylpyridinium chloride 89 xylitol 90 hinokitiol 91 essential oils and plant extracts 92 93 powdered zinc oxide has deodorizing and antibacterial properties 94 zno is added to cotton fabric rubber oral care products 95 96 and food packaging 97 98 enhanced antibacterial action of fine particles compared to bulk material is not exclusive to zno and is observed for other materials such as silver 99 the mechanism of zno s antibacterial effect has been variously described as the generation of reactive oxygen species the release of zn 2 ions and a general disturbance of the bacterial cell membrane by nanoparticles 100 sunscreen edit zinc oxide is used in sunscreen to absorb ultraviolet light 82 it is the broadest spectrum uva and uvb absorber 101 102 that is approved for use as a sunscreen by the u s food and drug administration fda 103 and is completely photostable 104 when used as an ingredient in sunscreen zinc oxide blocks both uva 320 400 nm and uvb 280 320 nm rays of ultraviolet light zinc oxide and the other most common physical sunscreen titanium dioxide are considered to be nonirritating nonallergenic and non comedogenic 105 zinc from zinc oxide is however slightly absorbed into the skin 106 many sunscreens use nanoparticles of zinc oxide along with nanoparticles of titanium dioxide because such small particles do not scatter light and therefore do not appear white the nanoparticles are not absorbed into the skin more than regular sized zinc oxide particles are 107 and are only absorbed into the outermost layer of the skin but not into the body 107 dental restoration edit when mixed with eugenol zinc oxide eugenol is formed which has applications as a restorative and prosthodontic in dentistry 29 108 food additive edit see also zinc deficiency and zinc toxicity zinc oxide is added to many food products including breakfast cereals as a source of zinc a necessary nutrient zinc may be added to food in the form of zinc oxide nanoparticles or as zinc sulfate zinc gluconate zinc acetate or zinc citrate 109 some foods also include trace amounts of zno even if it is not intended as a nutrient 110 pigment edit main article zinc white zinc oxide zinc white is used as a pigment in paints and is more opaque than lithopone but less opaque than titanium dioxide 14 it is also used in coatings for paper chinese white is a special grade of zinc white used in artists pigments 111 the use of zinc white as a pigment in oil painting started in the middle of 18th century 112 it has partly replaced the poisonous lead white and was used by painters such as böcklin van gogh 113 manet munch and others though it is being phased out by some artists paint manufacturers because of its tendency to form brittle and unstable paint films in oils 114 115 it is also a main ingredient of mineral makeup ci 77947 116 uv absorber edit micronized and nano scale zinc oxide provides strong protection against uva and uvb ultraviolet radiation and are consequently used in sunscreens 117 and also in uv blocking sunglasses for use in space and for protection when welding following research by scientists at jet propulsion laboratory jpl 118 coatings edit paints containing zinc oxide powder have long been utilized as anticorrosive coatings for metals they are especially effective for galvanized iron iron is difficult to protect because its reactivity with organic coatings leads to brittleness and lack of adhesion zinc oxide paints retain their flexibility and adherence on such surfaces for many years 73 zno highly n type doped with aluminium gallium or indium is transparent and conductive transparency 90 lowest resistivity 10 4 ω cm 119 zno al coatings a...