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however it is important to rethink country based research when addressing trans border and marginal societies inquiries on the ground throughout the massif show that these peoples share a sense of being different from the national majorities a sense of geographical remoteness and a state of marginality that is connected to political and economic distance from regional seats of power in cultural terms these highland societies are like a cultural mosaic with contrasting colours rather than an integrated picture in harmonized shades what terry rambo talking from a vietnam perspective has dubbed a psychedelic nightmare 9 historically these highlands have been used by lowland empires as reserves of resources including slaves and as buffer spaces between their domains 10 zomia edit zomia redirects here for manga series see zomia manga zomia is a geographical term coined in 2002 by historian willem van schendel of the university of amsterdam 11 12 to refer to the huge mass of mainland southeast asia that has historically been beyond the control of governments based in the population centers of the lowlands 13 it largely overlaps with the geographical extent of the southeast asian massif although the exact boundaries of zomia differ among scholars 14 all would include the highlands of north indochina north vietnam and all laos thailand the shan hills of northern myanmar and the mountains of southwest china some extend the region as far west as tibet northeast india pakistan and afghanistan these areas share a common elevated rugged terrain and have been the home of ethnic minorities that have preserved their local cultures by residing far from state control and influence other scholars have used the term to discuss the similar ways that southeast asian governments have handled minority groups 15 etymology edit the name is from zomi a term for highlanders common to several related tibeto burman languages spoken in the india bangladesh myanmar border area 16 james c scott edit professor james c scott of yale university used the concept of zomia in his 2009 book the art of not being governed an anarchist history of upland southeast asia to argue that the continuity of the ethnic cultures living there provides a counter narrative to the traditional story about modernity namely that once people are exposed to the conveniences of modern technology and the modern state they will assimilate rather the tribes in zomia are conscious refugees from state rule and state centered economies from his preface hill tribes seen from the valley kingdoms as our living ancestors what we were like before we discovered wet rice cultivation buddhism and civilization are on the contrary best understood as runaway fugitive maroon communities who have over the course of two millennia been fleeing the oppressions of state making projects in the valleys slavery conscription taxes corvée labor epidemics and warfare scott goes on to add that zomia is the biggest remaining area of earth whose inhabitants have not been completely absorbed by nation states although that time is coming to an end while zomia is exceptionally diverse linguistically the languages spoken in the hills are distinct from those spoken in the plains kinship structures at least formally also distinguish the hills from the lowlands hill societies do produce a surplus but they do not use that surplus to support kings and monks distinctions of status and wealth abound in the hills as in the valleys the difference is that in the valleys they tend to be enduring while in the hills they are both unstable and geographically confined 17 differing perspectives edit jean michaud explains the many dilemmas that arise from the language used to address the group of people residing in zomia in his historical dictionary of the peoples of the southeast asian massif 18 the people of zomia are often referred to as national minority groups and michaud argues that contention arises with each of these words in regards to the word national michaud claims that the peoples of the southeast asian massif are in fact transnational as many groups span over several countries according to michaud minority is not the legitimate way to label the group either since the populations are so vast michaud even claims that the word group is problematic because of its connotation with community and social cohesion that not all groups share 19 20 in 2010 the journal of global history published a special issue zomia and beyond 21 in this issue contemporary historians and social scientists of southeast asia respond to scott s arguments for example although southeast asian expert victor lieberman 22 agrees that the highland people crafted their own social worlds in response to the political and natural environments that they encountered he also finds scott s documentation to be very weak especially its lack of burmese language sources saying that not only does this undermine several of scott s key arguments but it brings some of his other theories about zomia into question furthermore lieberman argues that scott is overestimating the importance of manpower as a determinant in military success while the bulk of scott s argument rests on the efforts of lowland states to dominate the highlands lieberman shows the importance of maritime commerce as an equally contributing factor lieberman also says that examples not included in scott s analysis need to be taken into consideration scott firmly believes that the culture took shape as a defensive mechanism as a reaction to surrounding political and social environments lieberman however argues that the highland peoples of borneo kalimantan had virtually the same cultural characteristics as the zomians such as the proliferation of local languages and swidden cultivation which were all developed without a lowland predatory state 23 more recently scott s claims have been questioned by tom brass 24 brass maintains that it is incorrect to characterize upland southeast asia as state repelling zones of refuge asylum to which people voluntarily migrate this is he argues an idealization consistent with the new populist postmodernism but not supported by ethnographic evidence the latter suggests that populations neither choose to migrate to upland areas but go because they are forced off valley land nor once there are they beyond the reach of the lowland state consequently they are anything but empowered and safe in such contexts edward stringham and caleb j miles analyzed historical and anthropological evidence from societies in southeast asia and concluded that they have avoided states for thousands of years stringham further analyzes the institutions used to avoid repel and prevent would be states he further concludes that stateless societies like zomia have successfully repelled states using location specific production methods and cultural resistance to states 25 see also edit burma road hill tribe thailand mainland southeast asia linguistic area mandala political model monthon references edit michaud j 2010 zomia and beyond journal of global history 5 2 205 michaud jean meenaxi b ruscheweyh margaret b swain 2016 historical dictionary of the peoples of the southeast asian massif second edition lanham boulder new york london rowman littlefield 594p michaud j 1997 economic transformation in a hmong village of thailand human organization 56 2 222 232 willem van schendel geographies of knowing geographies of ignorance jumping scale in southeast asia environment and planning d society and space 20 6 2002 pp 647 68 james c scott the art of not being governed an anarchist history of upland southeast asia new haven ct yale university press 2009 melvyn c goldstein a history of modern tibet 1913 1951 the demise of the lamaist state berkeley u of california press 1989 herman amid the clouds and mist robert d jenks insurgency and social disorder in guizhou the miao rebellion 1854 1873 honolulu hi u of hawaii press 1994 claudine lombard salmon un exemple d acculturation chinoise la province du guizhou au xviiie siècle paris publication de l école française d extrême orient vol lxxxiv 1972 see michaud j 2016 seeing the forest for the trees scale magnitude and range in the southeast asian massif pp 1 40 in michaud jean meenaxi b ruscheweyh and margaret b swain historical dictionary of the peoples of the south east asian massif second edition lanham boulder new york london rowman littlefield a t rambo development trends in vietnam s northern mountain region in d donovan a t rambo j fox and le trong cuc eds development trends in vietnam s northern mountainous region hanoi national political publishing house pp 5 52 1997 p 8 lim territorial power domains andrew walker the legend of the golden boat regulation trade and traders in the borderlands of laos thailand china and burma honolulu university of hawaii press 1999 willem van schendel international institute of social history retrieved november 28 2010 kratoska p h raben r nordholt h s eds 2005 locating southeast asia geographies of knowledge and politics of space singapore university press p v isbn 9971 69 288 0 van schendel w 2005 geographies of knowing geographies of ignorance jumping scale in southeast asia in kratoska p h raben r nordholt h s eds locating southeast asia geographies of knowledge and politics of space singapore university press isbn 9971 69 288 0 michaud 2010 archived october 3 2011 at the wayback machine michaud j 2009 february handling mountain minorities in china burma cambodia vietnam and laos from history to current concerns asian ethnicity 10 25 49 scott james c 2009 the art of not being governed an anarchist history of upland southeast asia yale agrarian studies new haven london yale university press pp 14 16 isbn 978 0 300 15228 9 notes to pages 5 14 other explicit proponents of a systematic view from the periphery include michaud turbulent times and enduring peoples especially the introduction by michaud and john mckinnon 1 25 and hjorleifur jonsson mien relations mountain peoples ethnography and state control ithaca cornell university press 2005 f k l chit hlaing f k lehman some remarks upon ethnicity theory and southeast asia with special reference to the kayah and kachin in exploring ethnic diversity in burma ed mikael gravers copenhagen nias press 2007 107 22 esp 109 10 in addition he maintains that many traits that are viewed in mainstream cultures as primitive or backward and used to denigrate hill peoples are actually adaptations to avoid state incorporation such as lack of a written language shifting messianic religious movements or nomadism their presence is absent from most histories since as scott puts it it is the peasants job to stay out of the archives nonetheless in reality he sees the relationship between upland and lowland peoples as reciprocal since upland peoples are essential as a source of trade scott james c 2009 the art of not being governed an anarchist history of upland southeast asia yale agrarian studies new haven london yale university press pp 14 16 isbn 978 0 300 15228 9 notes to pages 5 14 other explicit proponents of a systematic view from the periphery include michaud turbulent times and enduring peoples especially the introduction by michaud and john mckinnon 1 25 turner s c bonnin and j michaud 2015 frontier livelihoods hmong in the sino vietnamese borderlands seattle university of washington press and hjorleifur jonsson mien relations mountain peoples ethnography and state control ithaca cornell university press 2005 f k l chit hlaing f k lehman some remarks upon ethnicity theory and southeast asia with special reference to the kayah and kachin in exploring ethnic diversity in burma ed mikael gravers copenhagen nias press 2007 107 22 esp 109 10 jean michaud ph d anthropologist université laval québec canada retrieved september 22 2011 jean michaud is a social anthropologist and specialises since 1988 on issues of social change among highland populations of asia michaud jean april 2006 introduction historical dictionary of the peoples of the southeast asian massif historical dictionaries of peoples and cultures 4 lanham maryland scarecrow press p 4 isbn 978 0 8108 5466 6 retrieved september 8 2011 for this dictionary a compromise solution has been adopted which was to accept official national ethnonyms but correct mistakes whenever possible and cross reference to alternative names close to 200 ethnonyms thus have their own entries which is the largest number the relatively humble format of this series allows michaud jean 2010 editorial zomia and beyond journal of global history 5 london school of economics and political science 5 2 université laval 187 214 doi 10 1017 s1740022810000057 this editorial develops two themes first it discusses how historical and anthropological approaches can relate to each other in the field of the highland margins of asia and beyond second it explores how we might further our understandings of the uplands of asia by applying different terms such as haute asie the southeast asian massif the hindu kush himalayan region the himalayan massif and in particular zomia a neologism gaining popularity with the publication of james c scott s latest book michaud jean 2010 journal of global history journal of global history 5 2 cambridge journals online issn 1740 0228 retrieved september 7 2011 published for london school of economics and political science victor b lieberman marvin b becker collegiate professor of southeast asia pre modern burma early modern world history university of michigan retrieved september 7 2011 little daniel michael e smith et al october 18 2010 zomia reconsidered blogspot web based monograph understandingsociety p 1 retrieved september 7 2011 lieberman s most recent volumes strange parallels volume 1 integration on the mainland southeast asia in global context c 800 1830 v 1 and strange parallels volume 2 mainland mirrors europe japan china south asia and the islands southeast asia in global context c 800 1830 are directly relevant to scott s analysis tom brass 2012 scott s zomia or a populist post modern history of nowhere journal of contemporary asia 42 1 123 33 stringham edward 2012 repelling states evidence from upland southeast asia review of austrian economics 25 1 17 33 doi 10 1007 s11138 010 0115 3 s2cid 144582680 ssrn 1715223 further reading edit drake bennett december 6 2009 the mystery of zomia ideas globe newspaper company retrieved november 28 2010 in the lawless mountain realms of asia a yale professor finds a case against civilization bunopas sangad vella paul november 17 24 1992 geotectonics and geologic evolution of thailand pdf national conference on geologic resources of thailand potential for future development department of mineral resources bangkok pp 209 229 isbn 9789747984415 archived from the original pdf on august 20 2011 retrieved november 27 2010 thailand consists of shan thai and indochina microcontinents or terran...