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many ways seems to be a limiting interpretation the great cultural synthesis championed by theology and mainly reflected in the works of its great thinkers first and foremost thomas aquinas is not reflected in university architecture or in its visible organization but in a university spirit based on a common logic on sharing places and rights on an approach whose origin certainly lies in the christian thought of the period a visible effect of such a christian approach is the creation of the two faculties of law and medicine alongside theology or even before it showing not only a need for higher education in the arts but a somewhat special care for the human being for the protection of physical and social life fundamental rights and essential needs therefore the phrase used by john paul ii nowadays to refer to universities as something that arose from the bosom that is from the heart of the church cf ex corde ecclesiae 1 does not sound exaggerated yet historically universities do not arise as an instrument of the church or to pursue its internal life goals or to extend its influence though they suited the training of clerics for studying and preaching purposes at the time of their creation universities played a much wider role the church s central authorities did not only guarantee the universality of studies and the qualification of the teaching staff they also strove to ensure studies should be free and freely accessible by encouraging local church authorities to ensure suitable accommodation for underprivileged students by building colleges this promotional activity made use of all the instruments available at the time through a legislation providing for special exemptions meaning to uphold the work done within universities and to preserve their special needs ii the renaissance and modern university while relations between the university world and christian culture did not actually undergo such a significant change during the renaissance as that subsequent to the enlightenment an evolution in the relations with the state brought about a gradual transfer of the jurisdiction over universities from the church to secular institutions a process accelerated by the reformation which would later reach its peak in the napoleonic era 1 renaissaince studies the italian renaissance and the european humanism did not conflict with the university world but rather they contributed to give it new life fostering theology itself at a time when scholastics experienced its nominalist involution university studies absorbed the humanist ferment making it their own a humanist like erasmus of rotterdam for instance was at the same time a university man having been a student in paris and in turin as well as professor at oxford and cambridge he became dean of the university of basel where he remained right up to his death however humanism as multiple and general a phenomenon as it was could not be confined within university walls artistic and intellectual circles developed in its wake and were soon organized as academies ideal places for interdisciplinary dialogue scholarly pursuits and scientific research gathering quite a few contemporary scientists the predominant focus of the humanist renaissance on the study of the classics did not at least before the reformation turn into a polemical stance towards the church and the cultural synthesis theology had promoted up until that point the very spirit of renaissance academies was attentive to theological studies sometimes taking an esoteric slant but in any case remaining open to the idea of a unified body of knowledge from the 16th century onwards the university spirit that had accompanied the great mediaeval foundations came to a dramatic standstill the division within christianity initiated first by german reformers and then by henry viii deeply influenced universities by strengthening their nationalistic and denominational connotation the new foundations promoted by german princes who had joined the reformation movement such as königsberg marburg and jena did not obtain the pope s patronage and thus turned into institutions which were highly dependent on the political power of those who governed their territories in england after the anglican schism the chairs of law and theology at oxford and cambridge were suppressed professors and students were forced to agree to the 39 articles of the act of supremacy against rome and thus universities in england took on a protestant connotation they were to maintain up until the 19th century on their part ecclesiastical subjects taught in catholic lands were strongly marked by the controversy although their academic titles and their approvals continued to be connected with the papal seat in many other aspects of university life the dependence on their founding principles increased in the renaissance period new layers were inevitably laid on the foundations of universities hiding part of their original spirit a certain aspiration to universality and depth in study and research remained along with a wholehearted affirmation of their importance for the life of a nation or of a social group however within a rapidly evolving epistemological paradigm the coexistence of a variety of subjects in one and the same place was still significant since the connections between human sciences and natural sciences had not been jeopardised yet having lost a great deal of their freedom of movement due to their increasing dependence on external goals universities began to wonder about the role they were playing in the education and training of their students in this process universities began their transition towards the modern age marked by state led educational schemes and by reflections on the university issue spanning the 19th and 20th centuries 2 university in the modern age the effects of the great political and cultural changes that occurred in 18th century europe were also clearly felt in the notion of university and on the order of studies although natural sciences were mostly developed within academies the rapid development of scientific research of important discoveries and their applications pioneering the technical industrial revolution of the following century entailed a growing specialisation of studies in universities the humanities too moved towards a significant differentiation mainly due to the developments of philosophical and historical thought with kant and hegel to the blooming of philological and exegetical studies to the new organization of social sciences in universities systematic presentations replaced the lectio format based on authoritative texts seminars and practical tests replaced disputationes the faculty of arts had by now been transformed into a faculty of literature and philosophy gathering a great variety of subjects lying outside the realms of the faculties of law and medicine technical scientific secondary schools began to be established as independent institutes in france and in german speaking countries the history of universities was to develop along different routes in paris the french revolution first abolished them then napoleon decreed their administrative and ideological centralization into a single imperial university german universities were nurtured by idealism and romanticism seeking to match their research freedom and their status as communities of scholars with the social and political development needs of national states with the success of the french revolution 1789 the will to get rid of whatever belonged to the ancien régime resulted in the consular republic issuing a decree ordering to close down all universities 1793 whereas napoleon a little later decided to set up a single strongly centralised imperial university 1806 turning the pre existing french universities into mere faculties under its control theological studies were to be subjected to the authority of the state even when teaching took place within secondary schools promoted by the church france was due to lose all faculties of catholic theology in state universities some decades later in 1882 that is at the time when the first catholic universities were starting to spread french faculties of protestant theology were turned into independent schools the great state oriented shift promoted by napoleon was to last very long and to significantly affect other european legislations in germany the great concentration of great thinkers in university positions contributed to keep the study of philosophical subjects alive as the latter had superseded theology in the intellectual leadership of the time above all since kant the originality of germany lay in the fact that between the 18th and 19th centuries the main protagonists of german culture were university professors and in many cases deans or chancellors the cultural liveliness of german universities made it possible for the research freedom ideal and for the appreciation of speculative pursuits to be kept alive protecting education at least for the time being from a pragmatic involution many of those thinkers devoted explicit reflections to educational issues and to university life the conflict of the faculties 1798 by kant the teaching of philosophy in universities 1816 by hegel fourteen lessons on the academic study method 1803 by schelling the occasional remarks on universities in a german sense 1808 by schleiermacher are but a few examples fichte first elected master of the new university of berlin 1810 dealt with university matters in a number of essays including the famous on the nature of the scholar and its manifestations in the sphere of freedom 1806 and deduced plan for an institute to be founded in berlin 1807 even longer influence was later exerted by numerous writings by wilhelm von humboldt director of the department of public education of prussia s home office von humboldt not only inspired and theorized the establishment of the new university of berlin but promoted a university ideal summed up in the motto freedom and solitude ger freiheit und einsamkeit two terms pointing to its autonomy and its relative detachment from the ebb and tide of social contingence as essential attitudes to preserve the wise approach that is eventually able to turn into an effective service to the human community in england and scotland the empirical tradition led the university notion towards a more pragmatic approach with the only exception of oxford where the local traditional humanist teaching opposed this trend in the second half of the nineteenth century the denominational branding imposed upon universities ever since the schism was softened the oaths of loyalty to the church of england were abolished and in 1838 a religiously neutral university system was established in london meanwhile the anglo saxon university style had borne new foundations in the american states territories including harvard 1636 yale 1701 and princeton 1726 among the oldest ones the order of studies of these centers had been developing in a varied manner quite independently from the homeland for a great deal of the 19th century it was still not comparable with the european one either in course syllabuses or in the meaning of titles from the start us universities showed a great deal of flexibility a high proportion of private enterprise and a rather strong legislative autonomy from the point of view of their relationship with religion they grew in an open environment in which the faculty of theology would later find its place in the constitutions of the oldest foundations explicit reference was made to the values of christianity both in the founder s objectives and in the educational goals to be pursued the cultural approach of italian universities subsequent to the country s unification 1861 showed a blatant opposition to catholicism even though they still appeared to be organised in the five faculties of law medicine sciences letters and philosophy and theology such an antagonistic feeling was to result in the later suppression of the chairs of theology in state universities in 1873 just as in spain in the same period the italian university culture thus inaugurated an era of separation without a real break between higher education and theological and religious reflections also due to the strong influence of philosophical positivism and rationalism as christian thinking was barred from higher education institutions a great deal of ancient and mediaeval christian thought in all its richness was slowly being erased from university memory a loss that also occurred in secondary school syllabuses thereby limiting the study of the main christian authors and ideas to just a few early christian literature courses or to the teaching of similar subjects a recovery of the contents of christian thought could not be achieved even through historical disciplines due to the idealist and historical approach started by benedetto croce and giovanni gentile and partly maintained to the present day in italy too this facilitated the rise of universities promoted by catholics and placed under the church s own responsibility and control iii the rise of catholic universities the situation of the university system in the 19th century also with regard to its relationship with the christian tradition may be summed up as follows the modern humboldtian university especially highlights the national context where universities work and the state plays an essential role in founding keeping and promoting university establishments the romantic rediscovery of the value of the popular spirit and hence of nations was intertwined with the enlightenment ideal of rational universality and enlightened power mediaeval universities on the other hand had a private associational spirit which was in any case independent from the state even prior to forming a universitas studiorum that is to say prior to following an interdisciplinary syllabus through a methodological unity which is the modern university s typical ideal they were universitas studentium and universitas docentium or rather a plurality of universitates that is of personal associations furthermore there is also another essential feature only partly connected with the first which differentiates the mediaeval university from the modern one mediaeval university referred to a single and only master jesus christ a rigobello l orizzonte tematico ed il suo sviluppo storico in rigobello et al 1977 p 23 during the 19th century transition the church tried to maintain its connection with that master within its own specific educational entities for the training of the clergy and the attainment of academic degrees in ecclesiastical disciplines validated by canon law it already had its own establishments seminaries and colleges and then universities divided into faculties these educational entities still exist and are known as ecclesiastical universities their statutes and orders of studies directly depend on the holy see these e...