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rue of another of the most popular of early genres passion plays telling the life of christ which were often filmed recordings of theatrical companies performances a compilation of shots of the play s key events could last well over an hour a third group of films told one shot mini narratives most often of a humorous nature some were gag films resembling the lumières watering the gardener in which the comic action takes place in the pro filmic event as for instance in elopement by horseback edison 1891 where a young man seeking to elope with his sweetheart engages in a wrestling match with the girl s father others relied for their humour upon trick effects such as stop action superimposition and reverse action the most famous are the mélièlis films but this form was also seen in some of the early films made by porter for the edison company and by the film makers of the english brighton school these films became increasingly complicated sometimes involving more than one shot in williamson s film the big swallow 1901 the first shot shows a photographer about to take a picture of a passer by the second shot replicates the photographer s viewpoint through the camera lens and shows the passerby s head growing bigger and bigger as he approaches the camera the man s mouth opens and the film cuts to a shot of the photographer and his camera falling into a black void the film ends with a shot of the passer by walking away munching contentedly 1902 3 1907 in this period the multi shot film emerged as the norm rather than the exception with films no longer treating the individual shot as a self contained unit of meaning but linking one shot to another however film makers may have been using a succession of shots to capture and emphasize the highpoints of the action rather than construct either a linear narrative causality or clearly establish temporal spatial relations as befits the cinema of attractions the editing was intended to enhance visual pleasure rather than to refine narrative developments one of the strangest editing devices used in this period was overlapping action which resulted from film makers desire both to preserve the pro filmic space and to emphasize the important action by essentially showing it twice georges mélièli s a trip to the moon perhaps the most famous film of 1902 covers the landing of a space capsule on the moon in two shots in the first taken from space the capsule hits the man in the moon in the eye and his expression changes from a grin to a grimace in the second shot taken from the moon s surface the capsule once again lands these two shots which show the same event twice can disconcert a modern viewer this repetition of action around a cut can be seen in an american film of the same year how they do things on the bowery directed by edwin s porter for the edison manufacturing company an irate waiter ejects a customer unable to pay his bill in an interior shot the waiter throws the man out and hurls his suitcase after him in the following exterior shot the customer emerges from the restaurant followed closely by his suitcase in a 1904 biograph film the widow and the only man overlapping action is used not to cover interior and exterior events but to show the same event a second time in closer scale in the first shot a woman accepts her suitor s flowers and smells them appreciatively then rather than a match cut in which the action picks up at the beginning of the second shot from where it left off at the end of the first as would be dictated by present day conventions a closer shot shows her repeating precisely the same action while overlapping action was a common means of linking shots film makers during this period also experimented with other methods of establishing spatial and temporal relations one sees an instance of this in trip to the moon having landed on the moon the intrepid french explorers encounter unfriendly extraterrestrials who remarkably resemble those hostile natives the french were encountering in their colonies at this very time the explorers flee to their spaceship and hurry back to the safety of earth their descent covered in four shots and twenty seconds of film time in the first shot the capsule leaves the moon exiting at the bottom of the frame in the second shot the capsule moves from the top of the frame to the bottom of the frame in the third the capsule moves from the top of the frame to the water and in the fourth the capsule moves from the water s surface to the sea bed this sequence is filmed much as it might be today with the movement of the spaceship following the convention of directional continuity that is an object or a character should appear to continue moving in the same direction from shot to shot the consistent movement serving to establish the spatial and temporal relationships between individual shots but while a modern film maker would cut directly from shot to shot mélièlis dissolved from shot to shot a transitional device that now implies a temporal ellipsis in this regard then the sequence can still be confusing for a modern viewer linking shots through dissolves was not in fact unusual in this period and one can see another example in alice in wonderland hepworth 1903 however another english film maker james williamson a member of the brighton school made two films in 1901 stop thief and fire in which direct cuts continue the action from shot to shot stop thief shows a crowd chasing a tramp who has stolen a joint from a butcher motivating connections by the diagonal movement of characters through each of the individual shots the thief and then his pursuers entering the frame at the back and exiting the frame past the camera the fact that the camera remains with the scene until the last character has exited reveals how character movement motivates the editing film makers found this editing device so effective that an entire genre of chase films arose such as personal biograph 1904 in which would be brides pursue a wealthy frenchman many films also incorporated a chase into their narratives as did the famous first western the great train robbery edison 1903 in which the posse pursues the bandits for several shots in the fllm s second half in fire williamson uses a similar editing strategy to that employed in stop thief the movement of a policeman between shots 1 and 2 and the movement of fire engines between shots 2 and 3 establishing spatial temporal relations but in the film s fourth and fifth shots where other film makers might have used overlapping action williamson experiments with a cut on movement that bears a strong resemblance to what is now called a match cut shot 4 an interior shows a fireman coming through the window of a room in a burning house and rescuing the inhabitant shot 5 is an exterior of the burning house and begins as the fireman and the rescued victim emerge through the window although the continuity is imperfect from a modern perspective the innovation is considerable in his 1902 film life of an american fireman undoubtedly influenced by fire porter still employed overlapping action showing a similar rescue in its entirety first from the interior and then from the exterior perspective a year later however williamson s compatriot g a smith also created an imperfect match cut the sick kitten 1903 cutting from a long view of two children giving a kitten medicine to a closer view of the kitten licking the spoon during this period film makers also experimented with cinematically fracturing the space of the pro filmic event primarily to enhance the viewers visual pleasure through a closer shot of the action rather than to emphasize details necessary for narrative comprehension the great train robbery includes a medium shot of the outlaw leader barnes firing his revolver directly at the camera which in modern prints usually concludes the film the edison catalogue however informed exhibitors that the shot could come at the beginning or the end of the film narratively non specific shots of this nature became quite common as in the british film raid on a coiner s den alfred collins 1904 which begins with a close up insert of three hands coming into the frame from different directions one holding a pistol another a pair of handcuffs and a third forming a clenched fist in porter s own oneshot film photographing a female crook a moving camera produces the closer view as it dollies into a woman contorting her face to prevent the police from taking an accurate mug shot even shots that approximate the point of view of a character within the fiction and which are now associated with the externalization of thoughts and emotions were then there more to provide visual pleasure than narrative information in yet another example of the innovative film making of the brighton school grandma s reading glasses g a smith warwick trading company 1900 a little boy looks through his grandmother s spectacles at a variety of objects a watch a canary and a kitten which the film shows in inserted close ups in the gay shoe clerk edison porter 1903 a shoeshop assistant flirts with his female customer a cut in approximates his view of her ankle as she raises her skirt in tantalizing fashion this close up insert is an example not only of the visual pleasure afforded by the cinema of attractions but of the early cinema s voyeuristic treatment of the female body despite the fact that their primary purpose is not to emphasize narrative developments these shots attribution to a character in the film distinguishes them from the totally unmotivated closer views in the great train robbery and raid on a coiner s den the editing strategies of the pre 1907 cinema of attractions were primarily designed to enhance visual pleasure rather than to tell a coherent linear narrative but many of these films did tell simple stories and audiences undoubtedly derived narrative as well as visual pleasure despite the absence of internal strategies to construct spatial temporal relations and linear narratives the original audiences made sense of these films even though modern viewers can find them all but incoherent this is because the films of the cinema of attractions relied heavily on their audiences knowledge of other texts from which the films were directly derived or indirectly related early film makers did learn how to make meaning in a new medium but were not working in a vacuum the cinema had deep roots in the rich popular culture of the age drawing heavily during its infant years upon the narrative and visual conventions of other forms of popular entertainment the pre 1907 cinema has been accused of being non cinematic and overly theatrical and indeed film makers like mélièlis were heavily influenced by nondramatic theatrical practices but for the most part lengthy theatrical dramas provided an inappropriate model for a medium that began with films of less than a minute and only became an important source of inspiration as films grew longer during the transitional period as the first edison kinetoscope films illustrate vaudeville with its variety format of unrelated acts and lack of concern for developed stories constituted a very important source material and the earliest film makers relied upon media such as the melodrama and pantomime emphasizing visual effects rather than dialogue magic lanterns comics political cartoons newspapers and illustrated song slides magic lanterns early versions of slide projectors often lit by kerosene lamps proved a particularly important influence upon films for magic lantern practices permitted the projection of moving pictures which set precedents for the cinematic representation of time and space magic lanterns employed by travelling exhibitors often had elaborate lever and pulley mechanisms to produce movement within specially manufactured slides long slides pulled slowly through the slide holder produced the equivalent of a cinematic pan two slide holders mounted on the same lantern permitted the operator to produce a dissolve by switching rapidly between slides the use of two slides also permitted editing as operators could cut from long shots to close ups exteriors to interiors and from characters to what they were seeing grandma s reading glasses in fact derives from a magic lantern show magic lantern lectures given by travelling exhibitors such as the americans burton holmes and john stoddard provided precedents for the train and travelogue films the lantern illustrations often intercutting exterior views of the train interior views of the traveller in the train and views of scenery and of interesting incidents in addition to mimicking the visual conventions of other media film makers derived many of their films from stories already well known to the audience edison advertised its night before christmas porter 1905 by saying the film closely follows the time honored christmas legend by clement clarke moore both biograph and edison made films of the hit song everybody works but father vitagraph based its happy hooligan series on a cartoon tramp character whose popular comic strip ran in several new york newspaper sunday supplements many early films presented synoptic versions of fairly complex narratives their producers presumably depending upon their audiences pre existing knowledge of the subject matter rather than upon cinematic conventions for the requisite narrative coherence l épopée napoléonienne the epic of napoleon 1903 4 pathé presents napoleon s life through a series of tableaux drawing upon well known historical incidents the coronation the burning of moscow and anecdotes napoleon standing guard for the sleeping sentry but with no attempt at causal linear connection or narrative development among its fifteen shots in similar fashion multi shot films such as ten nights in a barroom biograph 1903 and uncle tom s cabin vitagraph 1903 presented only the highlights of these familiar and oftperformed melodramas with shot connections provided not by editing strategies but by the audiences knowledge of intervening events the latter film however appears to be one of the earliest to have intertitles these title cards summarizing the action of the shot which followed appeared at the same time as the multi shot film around 1903 4 and seem to indicate a recognition on the part of the producers of the necessity for internally rather than externally derived narrative coherence exhibition cinema initially existed not as a popular commercial medium but as a scientific and educational novelty the cinematic apparatus itself and its mere ability to reproduce movement constituted the attraction rather than any particular film in many countries moving picture machines were first seen at world s fairs and scientific expositions the edison company had planned to début its kinetoscope at the 1893 chicago world s fair although it failed to assemble the machines in time and moving picture machines were featured in several areas of the 1900 un...