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ward centers of the brain fire and under these circumstances food can become intimately connected to mood wardle 1988 this sequence also confirms benoit et al s 2010 assertion of a food s incentive value in essence the food most coveted by restrained eaters will be eaten in greater amounts due to its high value subsequently when negative affect is experienced even in the absence of physiological need or hunger one will experience a conditioned response to eat to elevate mood wardle 1988 excessive eating increases among overweight people when they are anxious or depressed logue 1991 in addition induction of anxiety among obese individuals and a bad mood in dieters has been shown to cause increases in food consumption slochower kaplan 1980 like a negative feedback loop eating can increase with distress which triggers more eating and as the person ruminates on the breakdown of his or her dietary constraints an escalation of distress results heatherton herman polivy 1991 described in the literature also as counter regulation it has been shown in various experiments to occur when a subject is given a meal typically one of high caloric density before being given another meal and direction to eat freely restrained eaters eat more as compared to normal weight controls wardle 1988 as a result of perceived failure to maintain regulatory control with the first meal they consumed more during the second and demonstrated a cognitively mediated response appetite and food intake is clearly a multifactorial issue when natural feeding mechanisms can be overridden by environmental food cues as well emotional factors gender social networks and culture habits and behavior appear to be the targets for intervention of obesity in tandem with these behaviors a focus on recognition of responsiveness is imperative bringing forward unconscious signals to move toward food as well as the seemingly automatic thoughts and behavioral processes that occur around food must be addressed in order for change to be possible a sense of coherence as bongaard 2008 describes it can give an obese individual the energy to change and develop healthier and more aware eating habits knowledge and education provide a substantial foothold in the way of helping others in making healthier food choices and this needs to include education about the body s hormones involved in regulating food intake this cannot come at the expense however of cognitive and behavioral aspects of eating conditioned responses must be fleshed out and recognition of restrictions and rigid patterns of behavior must be assessed and in this case most specifically targeting food rules or limitations that can lead to feelings of deprivation lastly development of effective coping skills designed to both increase awareness and acceptance of emotions as well as decrease negative or harmful thoughts and behaviors must be included head 2002 clearly a flexible individualized approach is necessary to address and treat all of the factors related to appetite and food intake among the obese references benoit s c davis j e davidson t l 2010 learned and cognitive controls of food intake brain research 1350 71 76 bongaard b 2008 july august mind over cupcake diet and nutrition explore 4 4 267 272 bray g a champagne c m 2005 beyond energy balance there is more to obesity than kilocalories journal of the american dietetic association 105 s17 s23 head s 2002 binge eating in obesity treatment and weight management issues healthy weight journal 16 3 24 26 heatherton t f herman c p polivy j 1991 effects of physical threat and ego threat on eating journal of personality and social psychology 60 138 143 henderson k e brownell k d 2004 the toxic environment and obesity contribution and cure in thompson k j ed handbook of eating disorders and obesity pp 339 348 hoboken nj john wiley sons hormone regulates fondness for food 2007 august 11 sciencedaily retrieved from http www sciencedaily com releases 2007 08 070809172258 htm logue a 1991 the psychology of eating and drinking an introduction 2nd ed new york ny us w h freeman times books henry holt co retrieved from psycinfo database mann t tomiyama a westling e lew a samuels b chatman j 2007 medicare s search for effective obesity treatments diets are not the answer american psychologist 62 3 220 233 doi 10 1037 0003 066x 62 3 220 mela d j 2006 eating for pleasure or just wanting to eat reconsidering sensory hedonic responses as a driver of obesity appetite 47 10 17 neumark sztainer d haines j 2004 psychosocial and behavioral consequences of obesity in thompson k j ed handbook of eating disorders and obesity pp 349 371 hoboken nj john wiley sons nijs i m t muris p euser a s franken i h a 2010 differences in attention to food and food intake between overweight obese and normal weight subjects under conditions of hunger and satiety appetite 54 243 254 powell l calvin j calvin j 2007 effective obesity treatments american psychologist 62 3 234 246 doi 10 1037 0003 066x 62 3 234 schlosser e 2001 fast food nation the dark side of the all american meal new york ny houghton mifflin company slochower j kaplan s p 1980 anxiety perceived control and eating in obese and normal weight persons appetite 1 75 83 wardle j 1988 cognitive control of eating journal of psychosomatic research 32 6 607 612 weller r e cook e w avsar k b cox j e 2008 obese women show greater delay discounting than healthy weight women appetite 51 563 569 zheng h lenard n shin a berthoud h 2009 june appetite control and energy balance regulation in the modern world reward driven brain overrides repletion signals international journal of obesity 33 suppl 2 s8 s13 love this i want to share share on pinterest opens in new window pinterest email a link to a friend opens in new window email print opens in new window print share on x opens in new window x share on facebook opens in new window facebook share on linkedin opens in new window linkedin share on reddit opens in new window reddit share on tumblr opens in new window tumblr like loading posted by kpropstmiller march 11 2019 march 11 2019 posted in mood and food leave a comment on appetite food intake binge eating obesity disordered eating who is at risk eating disorders appear to know no boundaries and touch the lives of individuals of varying ages of numerous ethnicities of differing genders and heritages of those within a range of socioeconomic positions within many countries and across significantly varied backgrounds and family histories palmer 2000 and thompson 2004 despite the wide presentation of those who are impacted however certain individuals may be more vulnerable the risks incurred as a result of various psychological social cultural and behavioral influences and experiences are varied but certainly not random with much research demonstrating specific characteristics which correlate positively with disordered eating palmer 2000 and thompson 2004 this article aims to flesh out the risk factors for developing an eating disorder with a focus on the above areas additionally to highlight the impacts that both the environment and more internally driven mechanisms may have on eating disorder development we will address the following areas gender and biology society and culture age and developmental stage individual factors including personality emotion and life events and family history risk factors for the development of disordered eating gender and biology more than any other diagnoses found in the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders fourth edition dsm iv the eating disorders demonstrate the greatest gender gap smolak murnen 2004 not only are females eight to nine times more likely to develop anorexia nervosa an and bulimia nervosa bn than males but these differences in gender in every american ethnic group which has been studied have been shown as early as elementary school smolak murnen 2004 at this age it is not uncommon for males and females to demonstrate body dissatisfaction children as young as 8 years of age have shown levels of desire to change their bodies thompson 2004 however the age at which most females will present with clinically diagnosable eating disorders is commonly mid to late teens for an and mid twenties for bn palmer 2000 the mid to late teenage years represent a time of significant maturation both in the physical and emotional realms and a period when individuals are navigating independence relationships and are particularly sensitive to their appearances and the attention of others many females start menstruating in their early teens or younger their breasts begin to mature hormones change which can cause conflicting emotions and weight gain is a natural consequence of this process palmer 2000 many females may struggle with accepting these changes in their bodies and they can be compounded by perceived pressures to look a certain way and achieve a degree of thinness believed to be most acceptable in light of the ideal shape wertheim paxton blaney 2004 these societal and cultural ideals and messages are important antecedents in the development of eating disorders and will be discussed more fully later in this paper if during this time a young female is provided with less than nurturing and supportive messages she may well be on her way toward psychobiological regression palmer 2000 p 58 arthur crisp a leading researcher in disordered eating described how through eating restraint and significant loss of weight as occurs with an the normal biological processes are halted palmer 2000 a female who may be stressed with the process of growing up may take pleasure in her body remaining less mature palmer 2000 society and culture this is quite an interesting concept when as consumers the images portrayed are those of voluptuous curvy women but consider how often these curvaceous females have only breasts that are large and their other body parts remain relatively small hips and thighs for example which for many women are the areas where they may carry the most fat and fat that is biologically more imperative for child rearing males are not immune from risk during this time however an estimated one third of males express a desire to be thinner and an equal number would like to be more muscular mccabe ricciardelli 2004 quite the opposite of the female ideal one that is much thinner than the average woman the males portrayed in the media for example in magazines movies modeling competitions and even action figures are portrayed quite differently than average also carrying a lot more muscle mccabe and ricciardelli 2004 while diet and exercise for weight loss is the focus for many women 44 and 68 respectively approximately 15 and 52 of males engage in the same mccabe and ricciardelli 2004 those who have weight concerns have shown high exercise dependence as opposed to dietary restriction as is seen with many females and steroid use with the purpose of building muscle has been shown in 1 12 of males mccabe and ricciardelli 2004 society and the perceived ideal body weight and shape significantly influences how one may feel about his her body one s self esteem is impacted which can lead to meanings being associated with food weight and one s body low self esteem can be both a risk factor for developing an eating disorder but also a consequence of having an eating disorder palmer 2000 many theories have been outlined to explain how society s focus on slimness is a primary risk factor in eating disorder development some with a heavy focus on feminist perspective detailing how women s upward mobility and independence has created a stereotypical bent toward adopting a more male like figure to emerge as more socially powerful creatures palmer 2000 women s roles have certainly changed over the years with more women waiting to have children working outside of the home and acquiring positions of substantial power that may historically have been male dominated additionally a greater number of women are earning larger incomes and taking on greater responsibilities in their fields with higher power positions comes the additional pressure of being in a more prominent role and perhaps more on display smolak murnen 2004 objectification theory explains that this feeling of being on display has been shown to lead to increased dieting due to body shame as historically men s bodies have been regarded as acting and performing and female s bodies evaluated smolak murnen 2004 situations such as this can create significant stress and depending on one s ability to manage that stress in the context of one s personality characteristics cultural background occupation as well as family variables eating restraint is often initiated eating restraint cannot be addressed without a discussion first however of culture s impact on disordered eating behavior the power of one s surroundings whether people or places is significant for example within the gay culture 42 of men over a 15 year period were treated for bn anderson fye becker 2004 moreover consider the effect of socioeconomic status on the increased risk of eating disorders african americans asians native americans and latinos have all demonstrated an increase in disordered eating as a result of increased upward mobility i e social status anderson fye becker 2004 social roles food access and perceptions of normative body weights are often influenced by an increase in social status elevated social status affords greater access to technology people in westernized nations as a result of technological advancement are bombarded with images portraying unrealistic body ideals anderson fye becker 2004 this phenomenon is confirmed by the significantly higher prevalence of eating disorders in urban areas as compared to rural anderson fye becker 2004 and as individuals from other countries immerse themselves in the surrounding culture stress increases with the pressures to adopt the behaviors and bodies of that culture anderson fye becker 2004 an example of acculturative stress is demonstrated by the fijians who have historically been substantial eaters with more robust body sizes but of late have adopted behaviors like those found in more westernized societies cultures which have been examined for the body ideals they most emulate showed less risk of disordered eating when those ideals were larger anderson fye becker 2004 in effect acceptance of higher body weights is protective against eating disorders anderson fye becker 2004 not surprising it is those cultures that put more stock into caring for their bodies in terms of health rather than appearance that show less disordered eating tendencies eating restraint obviously multiple and comingling elements are involved in the development of disordered eating however one factor in particular eating restraint is the most common link between those diagnosed with eating disorders eating restraint often has as its antecedent weight loss and the desire to change one s...