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g room in which a roman citizen would undress to get ready for the next stage of the bathing process from there a bather would journey forth unto the warm room a facility known as the tepidarium which had the sole purpose of preparing one for the next room which was to follow by only making it moderately hot inside the last enclosure meanwhile was a true sauna unlike the previous and was known and rightfully so as the hot room or caldarium which was complemented with by a labrum a cold water fountain for self evident reasons the roman baths at bath london roman sanitation was also defined both by the flush toilet and a highly sophisticated system of drains and sewage bath water was recycled by using it to dispose of excrement at the public toilets the plumbing behind city drains meanwhile was made of terracotta and water during the imperial era was even separated as to direct high quality variants to be used in drinking and cooking whilst its inferior quality counterparts meanwhile was utilized only for fountains and baths last but not least meanwhile was the phenomenon of roman housing roman houses in general were supremely well built as a rule but there was often quite a substantial difference between the rich and poor the rich often inhabited single story houses called villas centered around a concept called the atrium the atrium had no roof and was as such vulnerable to turbulent weather but was designed to be as such in order to collect rainwater in the troughs surrounding the house a reconstructed courtyard depicting the atrium section of a roman villa the atrium was succeeded by a second open courtyard known as the peristylium which included a garden and was interconnected with several adjoining rooms a case which was true for the atrium before it also the houses of the rich were centrally heated by a hypocaust underfloor heating and was supplied with fresh water brought direct to them from lead pipes the poor meanwhile lived in run down apartment blocks known as insulae most of these shabby apartments only had two rooms at best lacked proper facilities with running water and was often extremely cramped and uncomfortable to live in insula buildings usually had on average 6 7 apartments with the ability to house over 40 separate unique individuals despite being restricted to a land area of 330m 2 the upper floors were especially known to be both hazardous and poorly built however hence most inhabitants preferred to live on the lower to middle floors instead ruins of an insula dating to the early 2nd century ad in the roman port town of ostia antica in stark contrast to the roman empire meanwhile few buildings dating back to the han era have survived to this day for in depth study because for the most part they were made primarily out of wood timber deteriorates quickly which by itself does not mean contrary to popular belief that the han chinese were inferior to their western counterparts however civilization use the means available to them to construct their buildings neither stone nor marble were naturally abundant in the traditional abodes of china proper wood by stark contrast was however hence most chinese buildings even to the end of the imperial era in 1912 were made primarily out of wood in saying that though the han empire was able to make steady progress in the realms of civil and structural engineering meanwhile the chinese however much unlike the romans were not avid builders of bridges nor roads whilst the romans built 400 000 km of roads as mentioned before 1 5 of which were paved and also 931 bridges of which most were arched the chinese only had 2 arch variants out of a total of at least 628 bridges at least 67 of rome s numbers and 35 400 km of roads 17 7 of roman total amount of roads most of which were unpaved the chinese during the han era were however instead able to make steady progress in the fields of imperial civil engineering meanwhile the greatest palace ever in the history of man by area was built during the han dynasty the weiyang endless palace seen below built primarily from timber in 200 bc at the personal request of liu bang first emperor of the han dynasty reigned 202 195 bc the weiyang palace was described to be 1 200 acres 4 8 km 2 in area making it 11 times the size of vatican city today or 6 7 times larger than the existing forbidden city in beijing or approximately 72 times the area of the versailles palace in france thus making it was one of imperial china s greatest engineering endeavours during the times of the han dynasty it was also known to have reached 35 metres deep below ground level outside the weiyang palace meanwhile was the great city of chang an the capital of the han empire and the second largest city of eurasia after rome with regards to their population numbering approximately around 400 000 individuals despite the fact that the city had merely 40 of rome s 1 million people population chang an the city of eternal peace as it was called in old chinese was 4 times as large as rome in terms of area and because the city of rome had an area of 13 73 square kilometres with a population density of 72 833 individuals per km 2 the chang an derived area from this figure was 54 92 km 2 which gave it a population density meanwhile of 7 283 individuals per km 2 or almost exactly 10 times less dense than the city of the seven hills in italy a reconstructed han era palace at hengdian world studios for the sole purposes of filming divided into 11 neighbourhoods the rich and the aristocracy were located in the city s south whilst the common people artisans and merchants resided in the northeast as for the city itself meanwhile a 12 gated wall with 8 avenues surrounded the han capital itself surrounded by an also 8 metre wide moat each of the aforementioned avenues was roughly 45 55 metres wide the walls were 12 metres high whist its perimeter was 25 7 km long evidence for the use both of stone and brick has also been discovered from han archaeological sites surrounding the modern city of xi an as it is called today speaking of walls however though the chinese like the romans often built city barriers to the same extent in both quality and quantity their free roaming fortifications on the other hand meanwhile was likely to have been much greater than their western counterparts all due to the existence of the great wall of china though the great wall has been built many times over most recent of which was during the ming dynasty 1368 1644 ad the longest version of the wall was built over 2 000 years ago by the han chinese the chinese wall was approximately 10 000 km across making it 85 times longer than hadrian s wall which to be fair was only so short because the width of britain itself was not very wide across remains of the han era section of the great wall of china today in dunhuang gansu province consistently 2 5 metres in height all across as the great wall was primarily situated in places far from the traditional abodes of china proper wood could not be used to make it and instead the chinese had to adapt to this extent sand and gravel was used instead for certain sections of the wall using rose willows and reeds the chinese constructed the basic frames of the walls first before piling them up in layers ground water with high salinity meanwhile was used to consolidate said sand and gravel much like roman structures despite experiencing erosion for over 2 000 years because the wall was not made out of wood it still stands to this very day after the great wall was at last finished by the han chinese it was also fortified with beacon towers placed apart for every 5 km of the han empire s northern borders as a result 20 000 towers ended up being constructed all along the wall just for this purpose beacon towers helped the chinese to sound off warning of a preeminent invasion from abroad since at any given time it was always manned with garrisons upon garrisons of soldiers who were instructed to generate smoke during the day and set alight torches at night both of which can be seen up to 15 km away in order to warn the imperial army of an imminent nomadic invasion from the hostile turkic peoples known as the xiongnu a han era beacon tower yumen pass one of merely 80 which were built during the han dynasty to act as countermeasure against possible invasion against the nomadic xiongnu empire beacon towers during the han era were usually wide at the base and narrower at the top often also square based and tapered they were mainly located well inside the great wall for obvious reasons usually also built on higher terrain than the rest of the wall which complemented it some of the towers reached 10 metres in height though on general they were more likely to be 7 metres with regards to the average structure of course not all the sections of the wall were made out of sand and gravel however rammed earth was another material used to built certain sections of the han empire s great wall and was also used in a variety of different types of structures as well rammed earth was a material used by the early imperial chinese which was essentially hardened earth similar to stone in both durability and hardness rammed earth was made by collecting a large amount of earth gravel sand silt and clay before subsequently compressing it until it was extremely dense like roman concrete rammed earth was also extremely resistant to the deteriorations resultant of time as such most han era ruins that still exist to this day are often found to be those that were primarily made of rammed earth ruins of the former han chinese rammed earth city of gaochang today in modern china in fact in a place where there were minimal if not absolutely zero trees present every chinese structure virtually was made out of rammed earth down to the last building as such han era rammed earth granaries for example have been found to have survived to this day along with han era watchtowers as well this one specifically is located in western gansu with regards to chinese subterranean structural engineering meanwhile so far a minimum of 10 000 han era underground tombs have been discovered in modern china today the tombs were made out of brick hence they they have also survived to this day apart from the fact that they were underground the han era chinese possibly exclusively were the most fond and avid builders of underground imperial tombs which were built for the rich and powerful brick vaults and domes were frequently used underground despite not being used on the surface level han tombs were usually built in several parts to contain 3 different enclosures there was the front side and rear chambers a han dynasty vaulted underground tomb the tomb of prince liu shan for one elder brother to han wudi specifically had a front hall with window drapes and goods to accompany him in the afterlife with regards to the front hall carriages along with artificially produced horses meanwhile were located in the side chamber whilst the rear end contained storage goods imperial tombs themselves were expertly crafted by cutting horizontally into the hillside of the mountains themselves in order to forge these great resting places for the beloved deceased as they were exclusively made for the rich the tombs were also designed to have a shaft like corridor leading onwards to a suite of rooms in order to reflect the former layout of the deceased s palace whilst they were still alive essentially the tomb was to crafted like this as to be the dead individual s home in the afterlife an eastern han 25 220 ad tomb from the secondary capital of luoyang and of course all the luxuries which had graced them would also be present upon their one s burial including fine treasures such as gold silver weapons jewellery lacquer but most importantly also jade it was from these tombs primarily that information with regards to the housing of the common han people have also been discovered in the form of ceramic and downsized replicas of real han era wooden architectures within the areas of china proper itself timber was the primary construction material so of course we have exactly zero remaining civil structures from the han era since they were made out of wood nonetheless due to references in both literature and by the aid of the underground ceramic models there has been evidence to support the contention that the han built immensely tall spires in their cities to serve as astronomical observatories the houses of the rich meanwhile in contrast to their roman counterparts were often multi storied they all usually had a courtyard at the bottom private fortifications a balcony with balustrades windows for every floor and roof tiles to conceal the ceiling rafters case in point here is an aristocrat s home with all the aforementioned features along with in addition watchtowers and gatehouses the fact that han era homes were often multi storied was a very impressive improvement from the periods which came before traditionally during the feudal era 2070 221 bc chinese architecture placed a strong emphasis on building horizontally due to the inherent weaknesses and instability of using wood and yet by the early imperial era during the 426 year long reign of the mighty han dynasty of china buildings were expanded into multi storied buildings despite these inherent weaknesses another ceramic house belonging to a han era nobleman which is not to say that there were not multi storied building prior to the han era there were but they were usually limited to 3 stories at the absolute maximum during the han era however that was no longer the case and houses for the rich especially often strove to surpass such a limitation as seen below in this particular aristocrat s home with 2 residential towers joined by a covered bridge interconnecting the manor left with its complementary watchtower right on the other hand we have minimal information with regards to the housing of the common people as the ceramic models were often used to replicate the homes of the rich however what little we do know about them however from literary sources has forced sinologists to conclude that the poor on average lived in 1 2 story houses made out of mud 3 generations often dwelt under the same building together like their roman counterparts the plebeians of rome the nong of han despite being ranked second highest on the chinese social hierarchy were often impoverished beyond belief as such no irrigation for washing or for matters relating to toiletries existed at the time much like the insula blocks in the roman capital an ordinary peasant family s home dating back to the han era to a much lesser extent than the romans the han administration also oversaw the construction of many public infrastructures throughout the han empire the zhengguo canal for one was restored under the wise guidance of the great han wudi who reasoned that because silt had been building up over time at the bottom of th...