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in the capital of france paris a temporary scheme whereby owners of cars with odd or even number plates were not allowed into the city on that particular day or days was in place during a particularly polluted period in 2014 temporary measures such as this are largely aimed at immediately cutting smog that threatens or has blanketed the city in question other methods include closing down particular routes or roads during particular days in são paulo brasil s biggest city a normally packed 3 5 km section of the minhocão highway nicknamed the big worm is returned for the use of pedestrians and cyclists only each weekday evening saturday afternoons and full sundays during the summer period whilst minhocão has been partially closed to vehicles for 26 years there has been a new movement to close down avenida paulista in the city on sundays as well the schemes in são paulo is used as an urban reclamation of roads or transportation routes as a matter to regain urban walkways and increase the use of public transportation and finds similarities with a number of schemes across the globe for instance in new york city usa the reclamation of the 1 45 km long high line an old railroad renovated as an elevated walkway festooned with shrubbery has seen it become a major attraction within the city itself in its own right the car can become symbolic as in this case where it is the icon of a city forever on the move the new york taxi is one such symbol and if encountered on its home turf is often accompanied by an incessant honking of the horn and the permanent background noise of a thousand ticking engines running over forever stopping and starting photograph on a digital camera by the author if used elsewhere please credit the author as appropriate new york city is both famous and infamous for its classic yellow cabs that litter the city to any driver from europe the roads of american cities can present a challenge as american cities are often built on the grid pattern much like the new city of milton keynes in the united kingdom in such a busy and compacted city as new york this invariably means that the traffic never truly gets a chance to flow due to the traffic lights at each and every corner dictating who goes where when on a visit to the city that i was lucky enough to have last year i couldn t help but notice the truly gigantic sounding board that the multi storied buildings of manhattan presented as the taxi drivers and drivers throughout the city incessantly honked their horn it surprised me but also moved me in a way i had not expected i was in the city of the movies arguably the heart of the country itself in all of its architectural splendor and freudian intimidation alongside the metaphorical american dream representations as i come to the conclusion of this post i have presented a quick introduction to some of my thoughts rounding down to international approaches to do with the increase in the number of the drivers and the damage wrought by diesel and petrol hungry engines in city centers not to mention the natural environment yet there is much more that i feel i ought to write i haven t touched on the interesting subculture of young male drivers in the kingdom of saudi arabia in which steam is let off by drifting or tafheet and other associated vehicular activities not the mention the incredibly strict restrictions placed on females in the country females are forbidden from driving although this is not illegal per se it is heavily policed with punishments handed out for females caught driving nor have i mentioned the fascinating subculture of bōsōzoku in japan which centers around the customization of cars and motorcycles the post describing these subcultures can perhaps wait for another day as this post has reached a fairly substantial length already disengaging the engine so those are my brief thoughts on a personal anthropology of driving with a few nods to international views and explorations nothing substantial just a brief overlay of ideas that percolate through my brain as i slip on my seat belt engage the engine and accelerate away onto the tarmac before me and into the night ahead of me influences further reading bbc british library sound archive 2015 noise a human history an ever noisier world episode 29 of 30 bbc radio 4 martin d l harrod r p pérez v r 2014 bioarchaeology an integrated approach to working with human remains new york springer robb p 2005 a death in brazil a book of omissions london bloomsbury publishing tags agency anthropology cars driving human osteology lomography mccune albright syndrome photography self anthropology trauma vehicle comments 3 comments categories agency america anthropology cultural anthropology disability disease driving eu fibrous dysplasia fibula fracture fracture fixation fracture treatment free thinking human anatomy human osteology humerus material culture mccune albright syndrome polyostotic fibrous dysplasia saudi arabia south america tafheet tibia trauma vehicle skeletal series part 10 the human leg 15 mar we shall continue our look at the human skeleton with the next installment of the skeletal series blog posts with a consideration of the leg elements previously covered was the hip and we shall now cover the femur upper leg patella kneecap and the tibia and fibula the two lower leg elements the evolution of the leg mirrors that of the arm from ancient fins to rod bearing segments and as per the arm the leg contains a single upper bone with two lower bones making up the limb ending in the quite unique foot or pes white folkens 2005 255 the femur is the human body s longest and sturdiest bone that helps to take the whole weight of the body during ambulation schwartz 2007 151 the tibia is the larger of the lower leg bones and it is easier to tell it apart from its slimmer lateral partner the long and angular fibula the patella is the body s largest sesamoid bone safely ensconced in its muscle pouch in the anterior portion of the knee the human knee is particularly interesting as it locks when stood straight up and unlocks with the aid of the popliteus muscle by laterally rotating the distal femur which helps critically stabilise the knee the basic bones of the human leg image credit sheri 2012 excavation during excavation of the supine skeleton in situ the lower limb bones tend to survive well because of their structural design and bone density in extended burials and dependent on burial and soil conditions the lower limb bones are often well preserved and relatively easy to distinguish from the rest of the body as always care must be taken when excavating the soil on top of and around the lower body the fibula can often be found fragmented or broken due to its lateral positioning and the effect of the weight of the soil and associated tibia lying close to it larsen 1997 even in cremated or burned skeletal tissue samples particular features and landmarks of the lower limb long bones can easily be identified and sometimes even sided as larger fragments can sustain slightly higher temperatures and minimal warping white folkens 2005 a medieval cemetery excavation during the 2007 brodsworth community project image credit the universities of hull sheffield field school leg anatomy and elements the lower limb in the modern human is an interestingly adapted limb to bipedal walking and as such it has changed anatomically from our nearest cousins the great apes to cope with our locomotion jurmain et al 2011 in this section we ll cover the basic gross anatomy of each bone with a more in depth look at the knee component after as mentioned elsewhere and on this blog here long bone growth is typically through the distal metaphysis distal border of the diaphysis of the limb and its epiphysis through the growth plate growth of the long bones in a juvenile knee joint the femur is located proximally with tibia distal and fibula laterally image credit danna 2011 femur the femur as stated is the longest limb bone with several distinctive bony elements it is a fairly distinct bone with a high level of robusticity and dense compact bone due to it being the main supporting limb doing ambulation the head of the femur fits into the acetabulum of the hip bone ilium ischium and pubis bones unlike the humerus and the glenoid cavity joint it has a direct ligament attachment between femoral bone and acetabulum the ligamentum teres which fits it snugly from the fovea capitis depression on the femoral head into the hip joint helping to stabilise the joint white folkens 2005 255 it is also heavily walled with muscles from the trunk of the torso down to the knee with the gluteal lateral posterior adductors medial quadriceps anterior and hamstring posterior muscle groups acting on the bone at various points gosling et al 2008 main anatomical landmarks of the femur for further information see hawks 2011 the main osteological features found on the femur include the greater and lesser trochanter s which are found in the proximal half of the femur just below the femoral neck the greater and lesser trochanter s act as muscle attachment sites for the gluteal muscles amongst others and sometimes a third trochanter can been seen just distal of the lesser white folkens 2005 directly posterior and running down the length of the shaft of the femur is the linea aspera one of the main attachment points for a variety of muscles including the vastus and adductor muscle groups at the proximal femoral end the linea aspera collects the spiral pectineal and gluteal lines white folkens 2005 257 the lateral and medial condyles mark the distal articular surface with the tibia bone of the lower limb alongside the medial edge of the medial epicondyle just above the medial condyle lies the adductor tubercle the insertion point for the adductor magnus muscle gosling et al 2008 260 the femur can be easily sided as the trochanters are medial and posteriorly positioned with the linea aspera running directly posteriorly and the adductor tubercle located medially on the medial epicondlye the mid section shaft of the femur is tear shaped with the round body in the anterior position and the top of the tear pointing posteriorly patella the patella is the human skeletal systems largest sesamoid bone and can be found in the anterior muscular pouch on the knee joint anchored by the quadriceps tendon and patellar tendon on the distal anterior femoral surface see diagram below it does not attach or articulated directly with any other bone the patella functions to protect the intricate muscles and ligaments inside the knee joint to increase area of contact between the patellar ligament and the femur and to lengthen the lever arm of the quadricep muscles white folkens 2005 270 the apex of the patella is the most distal point of the bone and the smooth posterior articular facet rides the ligaments and muscles located anteriorly of the distal femur the complex knee joint and associated ligaments that keep the joint stable image credit the healthy dancer tibia the tibia is a distinctly shaped bone with an proximal medial and lateral condyles medial and laterally intracondylar eminence s set posteriorly on the superior surface an anterior proximal tibial tuberosity the curved tri blade of the body anterior medial and posterior crests with the medial malleolus marking the distal extremity of the bone white folkens 2005 273 79 the landmarks on the tibia represent muscle origin and insertion points such as the soleal line on the posterior aspect of the proximal tibia which represents the soleus muscle origin the tibia is connected to the laterally positioned fibula with a strong interosseus membrane connecting the two throughout the length of the fibula with articulations at the proximal and distal segments of the tibia gosling et al 2008 277 distally the tibia articulates with the talus the first tarsal bone of the foot to easily side the tibia the malleolus is located on the medial distal aspect of the tibia and the tibial tuberosity represents the anterior facing proximal end of the bone the main anatomical landmarks of the right tibia and fibula with the anterior position on the left and the posterior on the right hand side image credit wikipedia 2012 fibula the fibula is the thinner of the two lower legs bones and does not bare any substantial weight white folkens 2005 it s primarily importance is providing the lateral border of the ankle joint with which it articulates with the calcaenous bone the head of the fibula located superiorly can be easily complicated with the distal malleolar articular surface and to add to the woes of identification the body of the fibula without the proximal or distal segments is nearly impossible to identify because of its irregularity the interosseous crest is located medially and serves as the attachment for the interosseus membrane which spans between the length of the tibia and fibula to side an intact fibula quickly use the posterior facing malleolar fossa which can be found on the distal articular surface of the fibula the fibula has also been used as marker of sex sacragi ikeda 1995 and although this method is rarely used it could be useful in a forensic or archaeological context where the skeletal remains may be limited further information although not mentioned here please take the time to get associated with the fleshy articular pads between the femur and tibia be aware as this is a fleshed photo bibliography gosling j a harris p f humpherson j r whitmore i willan p l t 2008 human anatomy color atlas and text book philadelphia mosby elsevier hawks j 2011 femur major landmarks and how to side it from www johnhawks net accessed 2012 jurmain r kilgore l trevathan w 2011 essentials of physical anthropology international edition london wadworth larsen c 1997 bioarchaeology interpreting behaviour from the human skeleton cambridge cambridge university press roberts c manchester k 2010 the archaeology of disease third edition stroud the history press sacragi a ikeda t 1995 sex identification from the distal fibula international journal of osteoarchaeology 5 139 143 access required schwartz j h 2007 skeleton keys an introduction to human skeletal morphology new york oxford university press white t folkens p 2005 the human bone manual london elsevier academic press tags femur fibula patella skeletal series tibia comments 6 comments categories anatomical terms archaeology bioarchaeology bone basics femur fibula human osteology muscle attachment sites muscles osteology patella skeletal series tibia broken bones one of my own 26 may an x ray of my right tibia showing a traumatic transverse fracture in 2009 my right tibia and fibula with a transverse fracture gained in the summer of 2009 a result of polyostotic fibrous dysplasia and my having mcune albright sydrome needless to say i spent the summer reading in the sun the fracture took a remarkable 17 weeks to heal in a 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