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ts own feet if the propositions of the tractatus are nonsensical then they surely cannot put forward the picture theory of meaning or any other theory nonsense is nonsense however this is not to say that the tractatus itself is without value wittgenstein s aim seems to have been to show up as nonsense the things that philosophers himself included are tempted to say philosophical theories he suggests are attempts to answer questions that are not really questions at all they are nonsense or to solve problems that are not really problems he says in proposition 4 003 that most of the propositions and questions of philosophers arise from our failure to understand the logic of our language they belong to the same class as the question whether the good is more or less identical than the beautiful and it is not surprising that the deepest problems are in fact not problems at all philosophers then have the task of presenting the logic of our language clearly this will not solve important problems but it will show that some things that we take to be important problems are really not problems at all the gain is not wisdom but an absence of confusion this is not a rejection of philosophy or logic wittgenstein took philosophical puzzlement very seriously indeed but he thought that it needed dissolving by analysis rather than solving by the production of theories the tractatus presents itself as a key for untying a series of knots both profound and highly technical 3 ethics and religion wittgenstein had a lifelong interest in religion and claimed to see every problem from a religious point of view but never committed himself to any formal religion his various remarks on ethics also suggest a particular point of view and wittgenstein often spoke of ethics and religion together this point of view or attitude can be seen in the four main themes that run through wittgenstein s writings on ethics and religion goodness value or meaning are not to be found in the world living the right way involves acceptance of or agreement with the world or life or god s will or fate one who lives this way will see the world as a miracle there is no answer to the problem of life the solution is the disappearance of the problem certainly wittgenstein worried about being morally good or even perfect and he had great respect for sincere religious conviction but he also said in his 1929 lecture on ethics that the tendency of all men who ever tried to write or talk ethics or religion was to run against the boundaries of language i e to talk or write nonsense this gives support to the view that wittgenstein believed in mystical truths that somehow cannot be expressed meaningfully but that are of the utmost importance it is hard to conceive though what these truths might be an alternative view is that wittgenstein believed that there is really nothing to say about ethics this would explain why he wrote less and less about ethics as his life wore on his accept and endure attitude and belief in going the bloody hard way are evident in all his work especially after the tractatus wittgenstein wants his reader not to think too much but to look at the language games any practices that involve language that give rise to philosophical personal existential spiritual problems his approach to such problems is painstaking thorough open eyed and receptive his ethical attitude is an integral part of his method and shows itself as such but there is little to say about such an attitude short of recommending it in culture and value p 29e wittgenstein writes rules of life are dressed up in pictures and these pictures can only serve to describe what we are to do not justify it because they could provide a justification only if they held good in other respects as well i can say thank these bees for their honey as though they were kind people who have prepared it for you that is intelligible and describes how i should like you to conduct yourself but i cannot say thank them because look how kind they are since the next moment they may sting you in a world of contingency one cannot prove that a particular attitude is the correct one to take if this suggests relativism it should be remembered that it too is just one more attitude or point of view and one without the rich tradition and accumulated wisdom philosophical reasoning and personal experience of say orthodox christianity or judaism indeed crude relativism the universal judgement that one cannot make universal judgements is self contradictory whether wittgenstein s views suggest a more sophisticated form of relativism is another matter but the spirit of relativism seems far from wittgenstein s conservatism and absolute intolerance of his own moral shortcomings compare the tolerance that motivates relativism with wittgenstein s assertion to russell that he would prefer by far an organization dedicated to war and slavery to one dedicated to peace and freedom this assertion however should not be taken literally wittgenstein was no war monger and even recommended letting oneself be massacred rather than taking part in hand to hand combat it was apparently the complacency and perhaps the self righteousness of russell s liberal cause that wittgenstein objected to with regard to religion wittgenstein is often considered a kind of anti realist see below for more on this he opposed interpretations of religion that emphasize doctrine or philosophical arguments intended to prove god s existence but was greatly drawn to religious rituals and symbols and considered becoming a priest he likened the ritual of religion to a great gesture as when one kisses a photograph this is not based on the false belief that the person in the photograph will feel the kiss or return it nor is it based on any other belief neither is the kiss just a substitute for a particular phrase like i love you like the kiss religious activity does express an attitude but it is not just the expression of an attitude in the sense that several other forms of expression might do just as well there might be no substitute that would do the same might be said of the whole language game or games of religion but this is a controversial point if religious utterances such as god exists are treated as gestures of a certain kind then this seems not to be treating them as literal statements many religious believers including wittgensteinian ones would object strongly to this there is room though for a good deal of sophisticated disagreement about what it means to take a statement literally for instance charles taylor s view roughly is that the real is whatever will not go away if we cannot reduce talk about god to anything else or replace it or prove it false then perhaps god is as real as anything else 4 conception of philosophy wittgenstein s view of what philosophy is or should be changed little over his life in the tractatus he says at 4 111 that philosophy is not one of the natural sciences and at 4 112 philosophy aims at the logical clarification of thoughts philosophy is not descriptive but elucidatory its aim is to clear up muddle and confusion it follows that philosophers should not concern themselves so much with what is actual keeping up with the latest popularizations of science say which wittgenstein despised the philosopher s proper concern is with what is possible or rather with what is conceivable this depends on our concepts and the ways they fit together as seen in language what is conceivable and what is not what makes sense and what does not depends on the rules of language of grammar in philosophical investigations sect 90 wittgenstein says our investigation is a grammatical one such an investigation sheds light on our problem by clearing misunderstandings away misunderstandings concerning the use of words caused among other things by certain analogies between the forms of expression in different regions of language the similarities between the sentences i ll keep it in mind and i ll keep it in this box for instance along with many others can lead one to think of the mind as a thing something like a box with contents of its own the nature of this box and its mental contents can then seem very mysterious wittgenstein suggests that one way at least to deal with such mysteries is to recall the different things one says about minds memories thoughts and so on in a variety of contexts what one says or what people in general say can change ways of life and uses of language change so meanings change but not utterly and instantaneously things shift and evolve but rarely if ever so drastically that we lose all grip on meaning so there is no timeless essence of at least some and perhaps all concepts but we still understand one another well enough most of the time when nonsense is spoken or written or when something just seems fishy we can sniff it out the road out of confusion can be a long and difficult one hence the need for constant attention to detail and particular examples rather than generalizations which tend to be vague and therefore potentially misleading the slower the route the surer the safety at the end of it that is why wittgenstein said that in philosophy the winner is the one who finishes last but we cannot escape language or the confusions to which it gives rise except by dying in the meantime wittgenstein offers four main methods to avoid philosophical confusion as described by norman malcolm describing circumstances in which a seemingly problematic expression might actually be used in everyday life comparing our use of words with imaginary language games imagining fictitious natural history and explaining psychologically the temptation to use a certain expression inappropriately the complex intertwined relationship between a language and the form of life that goes with it means that problems arising from language cannot just be set aside they infect our lives making us live in confusion we might find our way back to the right path but there is no guarantee that we will never again stray in this sense there can be no progress in philosophy in 1931 wittgenstein described his task thus language sets everyone the same traps it is an immense network of easily accessible wrong turnings and so we watch one man after another walking down the same paths and we know in advance where he will branch off where walk straight on without noticing the side turning etc etc what i have to do then is erect signposts at all the junctions where there are wrong turnings so as to help people past the danger points but such signposts are all that philosophy can offer and there is no certainty that they will be noticed or followed correctly and we should remember that a signpost belongs in the context of a particular problem area it might be no help at all elsewhere and should not be treated as dogma so philosophy offers no truths no theories nothing exciting but mainly reminders of what we all know this is not a glamorous role but it is difficult and important it requires an almost infinite capacity for taking pains which is one definition of genius and could have enormous implications for anyone who is drawn to philosophical contemplation or who is misled by bad philosophical theories this applies not only to professional philosophers but to any people who stray into philosophical confusion perhaps not even realizing that their problems are philosophical and not say scientific 5 meaning sect 43 of wittgenstein s philosophical investigations says that for a large class of cases though not for all in which we employ the word meaning it can be defined thus the meaning of a word is its use in the language it is quite clear that here wittgenstein is not offering the general theory that meaning is use as he is sometimes interpreted as doing the main rival views that wittgenstein warns against are that the meaning of a word is some object that it names in which case the meaning of a word could be destroyed stolen or locked away which is nonsense and that the meaning of a word is some psychological feeling in which case each user of a word could mean something different by it having a different feeling and communication would be difficult if not impossible knowing the meaning of a word can involve knowing many things to what objects the word refers if any whether it is slang or not what part of speech it is whether it carries overtones and if so what kind they are and so on to know all this or to know enough to get by is to know the use and generally knowing the use means knowing the meaning philosophical questions about consciousness for example then should be responded to by looking at the various uses we make of the word consciousness scientific investigations into the brain are not directly relevant to this inquiry although they might be indirectly relevant if scientific discoveries led us to change our use of such words the meaning of any word is a matter of what we do with our language not something hidden inside anyone s mind or brain this is not an attack on neuroscience it is merely distinguishing philosophy which is properly concerned with linguistic or conceptual analysis from science which is concerned with discovering facts one exception to the meaning is use rule of thumb is given in philosophical investigations sect 561 where wittgenstein says that the word is is used with two different meanings as the copula and as the sign of equality but that its meaning is not its use that is to say is has not one complex use including both water is clear and water is h2o and therefore one complex meaning but two quite distinct uses and meanings it is an accident that the same word has these two uses it is not an accident that we use the word car to refer to both fords and hondas but what is accidental and what is essential to a concept depends on us on how we use it this is not completely arbitrary however depending on one s environment one s physical needs and desires one s emotions one s sensory capacities and so on different concepts will be more natural or useful to one this is why forms of life are so important to wittgenstein what matters to you depends on how you live and vice versa and this shapes your experience so if a lion could speak wittgenstein says we would not be able to understand it we might realize that roar meant zebra or that roar roar meant lame zebra but we would not understand lion ethics politics aesthetic taste religion humor and such like if lions have these things we could not honestly say i know what you mean to a lion understanding another involves empathy which requires the kind of similarity that we just do not have with lions and that many people do not have with other human beings when a person says something what he or she means depends not only on what is said but also on the context in which it is said importance point meaning are given by the surroundings words gestures expressions come alive as it were only within a language game a cul...