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h instructions 104 though the predicate takes up four of the 32 bits in an instruction code and thus cuts down significantly on the encoding bits available for displacements in memory access instructions it avoids branch instructions when generating code for small if statements apart from eliminating the branch instructions themselves this preserves the fetch decode execute pipeline at the cost of only one cycle per skipped instruction an algorithm that provides a good example of conditional execution is the subtraction based euclidean algorithm for computing the greatest common divisor in the c programming language the algorithm can be written as int gcd int a int b while a b we enter the loop when a b or a b but not when a b if a b when a b we do this a b else when a b we do that no if a b needed since a b is checked in while condition b a return a the same algorithm can be rewritten in a way closer to target arm instructions as loop compare a and b gt a b lt a b ne a b perform operations based on flag results if gt a b subtract only if greater than if lt b a subtract only if less than if ne goto loop loop only if compared values were not equal return a and coded in assembly language as assign a to register r0 b to r1 loop cmp r0 r1 set condition ne if a b gt if a b or lt if a b subgt r0 r0 r1 if gt greater than then a a b sublt r1 r1 r0 if lt less than then b b a bne loop if ne not equal then loop b lr return which avoids the branches around the then and else clauses if r0 and r1 are equal then neither of the sub instructions will be executed eliminating the need for a conditional branch to implement the while check at the top of the loop for example had suble less than or equal been used one of the ways that thumb code provides a more dense encoding is to remove the four bit selector from non branch instructions other features edit another feature of the instruction set is the ability to fold shifts and rotates into the data processing arithmetic logical and register register move instructions so that for example the statement in c language a j 2 could be rendered as a one word one cycle instruction 105 add ra ra rj lsl 2 this results in the typical arm program being denser than expected with fewer memory accesses thus the pipeline is used more efficiently the arm processor also has features rarely seen in other risc architectures such as pc relative addressing indeed on the 32 bit 1 arm the pc is one of its 16 registers and pre and post increment addressing modes the arm instruction set has increased over time some early arm processors before arm7tdmi for example have no instruction to store a two byte quantity pipelines and other implementation issues edit the arm7 and earlier implementations have a three stage pipeline the stages being fetch decode and execute higher performance designs such as the arm9 have deeper pipelines cortex a8 has thirteen stages additional implementation changes for higher performance include a faster adder and more extensive branch prediction logic the difference between the arm7di and arm7dmi cores for example was an improved multiplier hence the added m coprocessors edit the arm architecture pre armv8 provides a non intrusive way of extending the instruction set using coprocessors that can be addressed using mcr mrc mrrc mcrr and similar instructions the coprocessor space is divided logically into 16 coprocessors with numbers from 0 to 15 coprocessor 15 cp15 being reserved for some typical control functions like managing the caches and mmu operation on processors that have one in arm based machines peripheral devices are usually attached to the processor by mapping their physical registers into arm memory space into the coprocessor space or by connecting to another device a bus that in turn attaches to the processor coprocessor accesses have lower latency so some peripherals for example an xscale interrupt controller are accessible in both ways through memory and through coprocessors in other cases chip designers only integrate hardware using the coprocessor mechanism for example an image processing engine might be a small arm7tdmi core combined with a coprocessor that has specialised operations to support a specific set of hdtv transcoding primitives debugging edit this section needs additional citations for verification please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed march 2011 learn how and when to remove this template message all modern arm processors include hardware debugging facilities allowing software debuggers to perform operations such as halting stepping and breakpointing of code starting from reset these facilities are built using jtag support though some newer cores optionally support arm s own two wire swd protocol in arm7tdmi cores the d represented jtag debug support and the i represented presence of an embeddedice debug module for arm7 and arm9 core generations embeddedice over jtag was a de facto debug standard though not architecturally guaranteed the armv7 architecture defines basic debug facilities at an architectural level these include breakpoints watchpoints and instruction execution in a debug mode similar facilities were also available with embeddedice both halt mode and monitor mode debugging are supported the actual transport mechanism used to access the debug facilities is not architecturally specified but implementations generally include jtag support there is a separate arm coresight debug architecture which is not architecturally required by armv7 processors debug access port edit the debug access port dap is an implementation of an arm debug interface 106 there are two different supported implementations the serial wire jtag debug port swj dp and the serial wire debug port sw dp 107 cmsis dap is a standard interface that describes how various debugging software on a host pc can communicate over usb to firmware running on a hardware debugger which in turn talks over swd or jtag to a coresight enabled arm cortex cpu 108 109 110 111 dsp enhancement instructions edit to improve the arm architecture for digital signal processing and multimedia applications dsp instructions were added to the set 112 these are signified by an e in the name of the armv5te and armv5tej architectures e variants also imply t d m and i the new instructions are common in digital signal processor dsp architectures they include variations on signed multiply accumulate saturated add and subtract and count leading zeros simd extensions for multimedia edit introduced in the armv6 architecture this was a precursor to advanced simd also named neon 113 jazelle edit main article jazelle jazelle dbx direct bytecode execution is a technique that allows java bytecode to be executed directly in the arm architecture as a third execution state and instruction set alongside the existing arm and thumb mode support for this state is signified by the j in the armv5tej architecture and in arm9ej s and arm7ej s core names support for this state is required starting in armv6 except for the armv7 m profile though newer cores only include a trivial implementation that provides no hardware acceleration thumb edit to improve compiled code density processors since the arm7tdmi released in 1994 114 have featured the thumb instruction set which have their own state the t in tdmi indicates the thumb feature when in this state the processor executes the thumb instruction set a compact 16 bit encoding for a subset of the arm instruction set 115 most of the thumb instructions are directly mapped to normal arm instructions the space saving comes from making some of the instruction operands implicit and limiting the number of possibilities compared to the arm instructions executed in the arm instruction set state in thumb the 16 bit opcodes have less functionality for example only branches can be conditional and many opcodes are restricted to accessing only half of all of the cpu s general purpose registers the shorter opcodes give improved code density overall even though some operations require extra instructions in situations where the memory port or bus width is constrained to less than 32 bits the shorter thumb opcodes allow increased performance compared with 32 bit arm code as less program code may need to be loaded into the processor over the constrained memory bandwidth unlike processor architectures with variable length 16 or 32 bit instructions such as the cray 1 and hitachi superh the arm and thumb instruction sets exist independently of each other embedded hardware such as the game boy advance typically have a small amount of ram accessible with a full 32 bit datapath the majority is accessed via a 16 bit or narrower secondary datapath in this situation it usually makes sense to compile thumb code and hand optimise a few of the most cpu intensive sections using full 32 bit arm instructions placing these wider instructions into the 32 bit bus accessible memory the first processor with a thumb instruction decoder was the arm7tdmi all arm9 and later families including xscale have included a thumb instruction decoder it includes instructions adopted from the hitachi superh 1992 which was licensed by arm 116 arm s smallest processor families cortex m0 and m1 implement only the 16 bit thumb instruction set for maximum performance in lowest cost applications thumb 2 edit thumb 2 technology was introduced in the arm1156 core announced in 2003 thumb 2 extends the limited 16 bit instruction set of thumb with additional 32 bit instructions to give the instruction set more breadth thus producing a variable length instruction set a stated aim for thumb 2 was to achieve code density similar to thumb with performance similar to the arm instruction set on 32 bit memory thumb 2 extends the thumb instruction set with bit field manipulation table branches and conditional execution at the same time the arm instruction set was extended to maintain equivalent functionality in both instruction sets a new unified assembly language ual supports generation of either thumb or arm instructions from the same source code versions of thumb seen on armv7 processors are essentially as capable as arm code including the ability to write interrupt handlers this requires a bit of care and use of a new it if then instruction which permits up to four successive instructions to execute based on a tested condition or on its inverse when compiling into arm code this is ignored but when compiling into thumb it generates an actual instruction for example if r0 r1 cmp r0 r1 ite eq arm no code thumb it instruction then r0 r2 moveq r0 r2 arm conditional thumb condition via ite t then else r0 r3 movne r0 r3 arm conditional thumb condition via ite e else recall that the thumb mov instruction has no bits to encode eq or ne all armv7 chips support the thumb instruction set all chips in the cortex a series cortex r series and arm11 series support both arm instruction set state and thumb instruction set state while chips in the cortex m series support only the thumb instruction set 117 118 119 thumb execution environment thumbee edit thumbee erroneously called thumb 2ee in some arm documentation which was marketed as jazelle rct 120 runtime compilation target was announced in 2005 and deprecated in 2011 it first appeared in the cortex a8 processor thumbee is a fourth instruction set state making small changes to the thumb 2 extended instruction set these changes make the instruction set particularly suited to code generated at runtime e g by jit compilation in managed execution environments thumbee is a target for languages such as java c perl and python and allows jit compilers to output smaller compiled code without impacting performance citation needed new features provided by thumbee include automatic null pointer checks on every load and store instruction an instruction to perform an array bounds check and special instructions that call a handler in addition because it utilises thumb 2 technology thumbee provides access to registers r8 r15 where the jazelle dbx java vm state is held 121 handlers are small sections of frequently called code commonly used to implement high level languages such as allocating memory for a new object these changes come from repurposing a handful of opcodes and knowing the core is in the new thumbee state on 23 november 2011 arm holdings deprecated any use of the thumbee instruction set 122 and armv8 removes support for thumbee floating point vfp edit vfp vector floating point technology is a floating point unit fpu coprocessor extension to the arm architecture 123 implemented differently in armv8 coprocessors not defined there it provides low cost single precision and double precision floating point computation fully compliant with the ansi ieee std 754 1985 standard for binary floating point arithmetic vfp provides floating point computation suitable for a wide spectrum of applications such as pdas smartphones voice compression and decompression three dimensional graphics and digital audio printers set top boxes and automotive applications the vfp architecture was intended to support execution of short vector mode instructions but these operated on each vector element sequentially and thus did not offer the performance of true single instruction multiple data simd vector parallelism this vector mode was therefore removed shortly after its introduction 124 to be replaced with the much more powerful advanced simd also named neon some devices such as the arm cortex a8 have a cut down vfplite module instead of a full vfp module and require roughly ten times more clock cycles per float operation 125 pre armv8 architecture implemented floating point simd with the coprocessor interface other floating point and or simd units found in arm based processors using the coprocessor interface include fpa fpe iwmmxt some of which were implemented in software by trapping but could have been implemented in hardware they provide some of the same functionality as vfp but are not opcode compatible with it fpa10 also provides extended precision but implements correct rounding required by ieee 754 only in single precision 126 vfpv1 obsolete vfpv2 an optional extension to the arm instruction set in the armv5te armv5tej and armv6 architectures vfpv2 has 16 64 bit fpu registers vfpv3 or vfpv3 d32 implemented on most cortex a8 and a9 armv7 processors it is backwards compatible with vfpv2 except that it cannot trap floating point exceptions vfpv3 has 32 64 bit fpu registers as standard adds vcvt instructions to convert between scalar float and double adds immediate mode to vmov such that constants can be loaded into fpu registers vfpv3 d16 as above but with only 16 64 bit fpu registers implemented on cortex r4 and r5 processors and the tegra 2 cortex a9 vfpv3 f16 uncommon it supports ieee754 2008 half precision 16 bit floating point as a storage format vfpv4 or vfpv...