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the (183), instruction (129), and (90), instructions (74), set (56), #memory (52), that (43), for (38), #register (37), are (32), machine (29), risc (28), architecture (27), operand (27), isa (25), edit (24), registers (24), have (24), such (24), with (23), bit (23), code (23), may (22), from (22), some (22), this (21), architectures (21), computer (20), operations (20), operands (20), unit (19), processor (19), more (18), data (18), sets (18), cisc (18), store (17), load (16), add (16), not (15), processing (15), one (15), machines (14), complex (14), control (13), design (13), performance (13), system (13), density (13), two (13), many (13), stack (12), arithmetic (12), single (12), often (12), used (12), location (12), use (11), per (11), branch (11), can (11), implementations (11), they (11), include (11), different (10), addressing (10), only (10), which (10), computers (10), number (10), reg1 (10), wikipedia (9), using (9), other (9), program (9), cache (9), designs (9), 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give one or both operands implicitly such as by being stored on top of the stack or in an implicit register if some of the operands are given implicitly fewer operands need be specified in the instruction when a destination operand explicitly specifies the destination an additional operand must be supplied consequently the number of operands encoded in an instruction may differ from the mathematically necessary number of arguments for a logical or arithmetic operation the arity operands are either encoded in the opcode representation of the instruction or else are given as values or addresses following the opcode register pressure edit register pressure measures the availability of free registers at any point in time during the program execution register pressure is high when a large number of the available registers are in use thus the higher the register pressure the more often the register contents must be spilled into memory increasing the number of registers in an architecture decreases register pressure but increases the cost 5 while embedded instruction sets such as thumb suffer from extremely high register pressure because they have small register sets general purpose risc isas like mips and alpha enjoy low register pressure cisc isas like x86 64 offer low register pressure despite having smaller register sets this is due to the many addressing modes and optimizations such as sub register addressing memory operands in alu instructions absolute addressing pc relative addressing and register to register spills that cisc isas offer 6 instruction length edit the size or length of an instruction varies widely from as little as four bits in some microcontrollers to many hundreds of bits in some vliw systems processors used in personal computers mainframes and supercomputers have minimum instruction sizes between 8 and 64 bits the longest possible instruction on x86 is 15 bytes 120 bits 7 within an instruction set different instructions may have different lengths in some architectures notably most reduced instruction set computers risc instructions are a fixed length typically corresponding with that architecture s word size in other architectures instructions have variable length typically integral multiples of a byte or a halfword some such as the arm with thumb extension have mixed variable encoding that is two fixed usually 32 bit and 16 bit encodings where instructions cannot be mixed freely but must be switched between on a branch or exception boundary in armv8 fixed length instructions are less complicated to handle than variable length instructions for several reasons not having to check whether an instruction straddles a cache line or virtual memory page boundary 4 for instance and are therefore somewhat easier to optimize for speed code density edit in early 1960s computers main memory was expensive and very limited even on mainframes minimizing the size of a program to make sure it would fit in the limited memory was often central thus the size of the instructions needed to perform a particular task the code density was an important characteristic of any instruction set it remained important on the initially tiny memories of minicomputers and then microprocessors density remains important today for smartphone applications applications downloaded into browsers over slow internet connections and in roms for embedded applications a more general advantage of increased density is improved effectiveness of caches and instruction prefetch computers with high code density often have complex instructions for procedure entry parameterized returns loops etc therefore retroactively named complex instruction set computers cisc however more typical or frequent cisc instructions merely combine a basic alu operation such as add with the access of one or more operands in memory using addressing modes such as direct indirect indexed etc certain architectures may allow two or three operands including the result directly in memory or may be able to perform functions such as automatic pointer increment etc software implemented instruction sets may have even more complex and powerful instructions reduced instruction set computers risc were first widely implemented during a period of rapidly growing memory subsystems they sacrifice code density to simplify implementation circuitry and try to increase performance via higher clock frequencies and more registers a single risc instruction typically performs only a single operation such as an add of registers or a load from a memory location into a register a risc instruction set normally has a fixed instruction length whereas a typical cisc instruction set has instructions of widely varying length however as risc computers normally require more and often longer instructions to implement a given task they inherently make less optimal use of bus bandwidth and cache memories certain embedded risc isas like thumb and avr32 typically exhibit very high density owing to a technique called code compression this technique packs two 16 bit instructions into one 32 bit word which is then unpacked at the decode stage and executed as two instructions 8 minimal instruction set computers misc are commonly a form of stack machine where there are few separate instructions 8 32 so that multiple instructions can be fit into a single machine word these types of cores often take little silicon to implement so they can be easily realized in an fpga or in a multi core form the code density of misc is similar to the code density of risc the increased instruction density is offset by requiring more of the primitive instructions to do a task 9 failed verification there has been research into executable compression as a mechanism for improving code density the mathematics of kolmogorov complexity describes the challenges and limits of this representation edit the instructions constituting a program are rarely specified using their internal numeric form machine code they may be specified by programmers using an assembly language or more commonly may be generated from high level programming languages by compilers design edit the design of instruction sets is a complex issue there were two stages in history for the microprocessor the first was the cisc complex instruction set computer which had many different instructions in the 1970s however places like ibm did research and found that many instructions in the set could be eliminated the result was the risc reduced instruction set computer an architecture that uses a smaller set of instructions a simpler instruction set may offer the potential for higher speeds reduced processor size and reduced power consumption however a more complex set may optimize common operations improve memory and cache efficiency or simplify programming some instruction set designers reserve one or more opcodes for some kind of system call or software interrupt for example mos technology 6502 uses 00 h zilog z80 uses the eight codes c7 cf d7 df e7 ef f7 ff h 10 while motorola 68000 use codes in the range a000 afff h fast virtual machines are much easier to implement if an instruction set meets the popek and goldberg virtualization requirements clarification needed the nop slide used in immunity aware programming is much easier to implement if the unprogrammed state of the memory is interpreted as a nop dubious discuss on systems with multiple processors non blocking synchronization algorithms are much easier to implement citation needed if the instruction set includes support for something such as fetch and add load link store conditional ll sc or atomic compare and swap instruction set implementation edit any given instruction set can be implemented in a variety of ways all ways of implementing a particular instruction set provide the same programming model and all implementations of that instruction set are able to run the same executables the various ways of implementing an instruction set give different tradeoffs between cost performance power consumption size etc when designing the microarchitecture of a processor engineers use blocks of hard wired electronic circuitry often designed separately such as adders multiplexers counters registers alus etc some kind of register transfer language is then often used to describe the decoding and sequencing of each instruction of an isa using this physical microarchitecture there are two basic ways to build a control unit to implement this description although many designs use middle ways or compromises some computer designs hardwire the complete instruction set decoding and sequencing just like the rest of the microarchitecture other designs employ microcode routines or tables or both to do this typically as on chip roms or plas or both although separate rams and roms have been used historically the western digital mcp 1600 is an older example using a dedicated separate rom for microcode some designs use a combination of hardwired design and microcode for the control unit some cpu designs use a writable control store they compile the instruction set to a writable ram or flash inside the cpu such as the rekursiv processor and the imsys cjip 11 or an fpga reconfigurable computing an isa can also be emulated in software by an interpreter naturally due to the interpretation overhead this is slower than directly running programs on the emulated hardware unless the hardware running the emulator is an order of magnitude faster today it is common practice for vendors of new isas or microarchitectures to make software emulators available to software developers before the hardware implementation is ready often the details of the implementation have a strong influence on the particular instructions selected for the instruction set for example many implementations of the instruction pipeline only allow a single memory load or memory store per instruction leading to a load store architecture risc for another example some early ways of implementing the instruction pipeline led to a delay slot the demands of high speed digital signal processing have pushed in the opposite direction forcing instructions to be implemented in a particular way for example to perform digital filters fast enough the mac instruction in a typical digital signal processor dsp must use a kind of harvard architecture that can fetch an instruction and two data words simultaneously and it requires a single cycle multiply accumulate multiplier see also edit comparison of instruction set architectures computer architecture cpu design compressed instruction set emulator simulator list of instruction sets instruction set simulator ovpsim full systems simulator providing ability to create model emulate any instruction set using c and standard apis register transfer language rtl micro operation references edit pugh emerson w johnson lyle r palmer john h 1991 ibm s 360 and early 370 systems mit press isbn 0 262 16123 0 crystal chen greg novick kirk shimano december 16 2006 risc architecture risc vs cisc cs stanford edu retrieved february 21 2015 durand paul instruction set architecture isa introduction to computer science cs 0 a b c the evolution of risc technology at ibm by john cocke ibm journal of r d volume 44 numbers 1 2 p 48 2000 page daniel 2009 11 compilers a practical introduction to computer architecture springer p 464 bibcode 2009pica book p isbn 978 1 84882 255 9 venkat ashish tullsen dean m 2014 harnessing isa diversity design of a heterogeneous isa chip multiprocessor 41st annual international symposium on computer architecture intel 64 and ia 32 architectures software developer s manual intel corporation retrieved 12 july 2012 weaver vincent m mckee sally a 2009 code density concerns for new architectures ieee international conference on computer design citeseerx 10 1 1 398 1967 doi 10 1109 iccd 2009 5413117 risc vs cisc cs stanford edu retrieved 2021 12 18 ganssle jack february 26 2001 proactive debugging embedded com great microprocessors of the past and present v 13 4 0 cpushack net retrieved 2014 07 25 further reading edit bowen jonathan p july august 1985 standard microprocessor programming cards microprocessors and microsystems 9 6 274 290 doi 10 1016 0141 9331 85 90116 4 external links edit the wikibook microprocessor design has a page on the topic of instruction set architectures media related to instruction set architectures at wikimedia commons programming textfiles bowen s instruction summary cards mark smotherman s historical computer designs page v t e processor technologies models abstract machine stored program computer finite state machine with datapath hierarchical deterministic finite automaton queue automaton cellular automaton quantum cellular automaton turing machine alternating turing machine universal post turing quantum nondeterministic turing machine probabilistic turing machine hypercomputation zeno machine belt machine stack machine register machines counter pointer random access random access stored program architecture microarchitecture von neumann harvard modified dataflow transport triggered cellular endianness memory access numa huma load store register memory cache hierarchy memory hierarchy virtual memory secondary storage heterogeneous fabric multiprocessing cognitive neuromorphic instruction set architectures types orthogonal instruction set cisc risc application specific edge trips vliw epic misc oisc nisc zisc visc architecture quantum computing comparison addressing modes instruction sets motorola 68000 series vax pdp 11 x86 arm stanford mips mips mips x power power powerpc power isa clipper architecture sparc superh dec alpha etrax cris m32r unicore itanium openrisc risc v microblaze lmc system 3x0 s 360 s 370 s 390 z architecture tilera isa visc architecture epiphany architecture others execution instruction pipelining pipeline stall operand forwarding classic risc pipeline hazards data dependency structural control false sharing out of order scoreboarding tomasulo algorithm reservation station re order buffer register renaming wide issue speculative branch prediction memory dependence prediction parallelism level bit bit serial word instruction pipelining scalar superscalar task thread process data vector memory distributed multithreading temporal simultaneous hyperthreading speculative preemptive cooperative flynn s taxonomy sisd simd array processing simt pipelined processing associative processing swar misd mimd spmd processor performance transistor count instructions per cycle ipc cycles per instruction cpi instructions per second ips floating point operations per second flops transactions per second tps synaptic updates per second sups performance per watt ppw cache performance metrics computer performance by orders of magnitude types central processing unit cpu graphics processing unit gpu gpgpu vector barrel stream tile processor coprocessor pal asic fpga fpoa cpld multi chip module mcm system in a package sip package on a...