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be used to create new models of civic engagement if device networks can be open to user control and inter operable platforms philip n howard a professor and author writes that political life in both democracies and authoritarian regimes will be shaped by the way the iot will be used for civic engagement for that to happen he argues that any connected device should be able to divulge a list of the ultimate beneficiaries of its sensor data and that individual citizens should be able to add new organisations to the beneficiary list in addition he argues that civil society groups need to start developing their iot strategy for making use of data and engaging with the public 184 government regulation on iot edit one of the key drivers of the iot is data the success of the idea of connecting devices to make them more efficient is dependent upon access to and storage processing of data for this purpose companies working on the iot collect data from multiple sources and store it in their cloud network for further processing this leaves the door wide open for privacy and security dangers and single point vulnerability of multiple systems 185 the other issues pertain to consumer choice and ownership of data 186 and how it is used though still in their infancy regulations and governance regarding these issues of privacy security and data ownership continue to develop 187 188 189 iot regulation depends on the country some examples of legislation that is relevant to privacy and data collection are the us privacy act of 1974 oecd guidelines on the protection of privacy and transborder flows of personal data of 1980 and the eu directive 95 46 ec of 1995 190 current regulatory environment a report published by the federal trade commission ftc in january 2015 made the following three recommendations 191 data security at the time of designing iot companies should ensure that data collection storage and processing would be secure at all times companies should adopt a defense in depth approach and encrypt data at each stage 192 data consent users should have a choice as to what data they share with iot companies and the users must be informed if their data gets exposed data minimisation iot companies should collect only the data they need and retain the collected information only for a limited time however the ftc stopped at just making recommendations for now according to an ftc analysis the existing framework consisting of the ftc act the fair credit reporting act and the children s online privacy protection act along with developing consumer education and business guidance participation in multi stakeholder efforts and advocacy to other agencies at the federal state and local level is sufficient to protect consumer rights 193 a resolution passed by the senate in march 2015 is already being considered by the congress 194 this resolution recognized the need for formulating a national policy on iot and the matter of privacy security and spectrum furthermore to provide an impetus to the iot ecosystem in march 2016 a bipartisan group of four senators proposed a bill the developing innovation and growing the internet of things digit act to direct the federal communications commission to assess the need for more spectrum to connect iot devices approved on 28 september 2018 california senate bill no 327 195 goes into effect on 1 january 2020 the bill requires a manufacturer of a connected device as those terms are defined to equip the device with a reasonable security feature or features that are appropriate to the nature and function of the device appropriate to the information it may collect contain or transmit and designed to protect the device and any information contained therein from unauthorized access destruction use modification or disclosure several standards for the iot industry are actually being established relating to automobiles because most concerns arising from use of connected cars apply to healthcare devices as well in fact the national highway traffic safety administration nhtsa is preparing cybersecurity guidelines and a database of best practices to make automotive computer systems more secure 196 a recent report from the world bank examines the challenges and opportunities in government adoption of iot 197 these include still early days for the iot in government underdeveloped policy and regulatory frameworks unclear business models despite strong value proposition clear institutional and capacity gap in government and the private sector inconsistent data valuation and management infrastructure a major barrier government as an enabler most successful pilots share common characteristics public private partnership local leadership in early december 2021 the u k government introduced the product security and telecommunications infrastructure bill pst an effort to legislate iot distributors manufacturers and importers to meet certain cybersecurity standards the bill also seeks to improve the security credentials of consumer iot devices 198 criticism problems and controversies edit platform fragmentation edit the iot suffers from platform fragmentation lack of interoperability and common technical standards 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 excessive citations a situation where the variety of iot devices in terms of both hardware variations and differences in the software running on them makes the task of developing applications that work consistently between different inconsistent technology ecosystems hard 1 for example wireless connectivity for iot devices can be done using bluetooth zigbee z wave lora nb iot cat m1 as well as completely custom proprietary radios each with its own advantages and disadvantages and unique support ecosystem 206 the iot s amorphous computing nature is also a problem for security since patches to bugs found in the core operating system often do not reach users of older and lower price devices 207 208 209 one set of researchers say that the failure of vendors to support older devices with patches and updates leaves more than 87 of active android devices vulnerable 210 211 privacy autonomy and control edit philip n howard a professor and author writes that the internet of things offers immense potential for empowering citizens making government transparent and broadening information access howard cautions however that privacy threats are enormous as is the potential for social control and political manipulation 212 concerns about privacy have led many to consider the possibility that big data infrastructures such as the internet of things and data mining are inherently incompatible with privacy 213 key challenges of increased digitalization in the water transport or energy sector are related to privacy and cybersecurity which necessitate an adequate response from research and policymakers alike 214 writer adam greenfield claims that iot technologies are not only an invasion of public space but are also being used to perpetuate normative behavior citing an instance of billboards with hidden cameras that tracked the demographics of passersby who stopped to read the advertisement the internet of things council compared the increased prevalence of digital surveillance due to the internet of things to the conceptual panopticon described by jeremy bentham in the 18th century 215 the assertion was defended by the works of french philosophers michel foucault and gilles deleuze in discipline and punish the birth of the prison foucault asserts that the panopticon was a central element of the discipline society developed during the industrial era 216 foucault also argued that the discipline systems established in factories and school reflected bentham s vision of panopticism 216 in his 1992 paper postscripts on the societies of control deleuze wrote that the discipline society had transitioned into a control society with the computer replacing the panopticon as an instrument of discipline and control while still maintaining the qualities similar to that of panopticism 217 peter paul verbeek a professor of philosophy of technology at the university of twente netherlands writes that technology already influences our moral decision making which in turn affects human agency privacy and autonomy he cautions against viewing technology merely as a human tool and advocates instead to consider it as an active agent 218 justin brookman of the center for democracy and technology expressed concern regarding the impact of the iot on consumer privacy saying that there are some people in the commercial space who say oh big data well let s collect everything keep it around forever we ll pay for somebody to think about security later the question is whether we want to have some sort of policy framework in place to limit that 219 tim o reilly believes that the way companies sell the iot devices on consumers are misplaced disputing the notion that the iot is about gaining efficiency from putting all kinds of devices online and postulating that the iot is really about human augmentation the applications are profoundly different when you have sensors and data driving the decision making 220 editorials at wired have also expressed concern one stating what you re about to lose is your privacy actually it s worse than that you aren t just going to lose your privacy you re going to have to watch the very concept of privacy be rewritten under your nose 221 the american civil liberties union aclu expressed concern regarding the ability of iot to erode people s control over their own lives the aclu wrote that there s simply no way to forecast how these immense powers disproportionately accumulating in the hands of corporations seeking financial advantage and governments craving ever more control will be used chances are big data and the internet of things will make it harder for us to control our own lives as we grow increasingly transparent to powerful corporations and government institutions that are becoming more opaque to us 222 in response to rising concerns about privacy and smart technology in 2007 the british government stated it would follow formal privacy by design principles when implementing their smart metering program the program would lead to replacement of traditional power meters with smart power meters which could track and manage energy usage more accurately 223 however the british computer society is doubtful these principles were ever actually implemented 224 in 2009 the dutch parliament rejected a similar smart metering program basing their decision on privacy concerns the dutch program later revised and passed in 2011 224 data storage edit a challenge for producers of iot applications is to clean process and interpret the vast amount of data which is gathered by the sensors there is a solution proposed for the analytics of the information referred to as wireless sensor networks 225 these networks share data among sensor nodes that are sent to a distributed system for the analytics of the sensory data 226 another challenge is the storage of this bulk data depending on the application there could be high data acquisition requirements which in turn lead to high storage requirements currently the internet is already responsible for 5 of the total energy generated 225 and a daunting challenge to power iot devices to collect and even store data still remains 227 data silos although a common challenge of legacy systems still commonly occur with the implementation of iot devices particularly within manufacturing as there are a lot of benefits to be gained from iot and iiot devices the means in which the data is stored can present serious challenges without the principles of autonomy transparency and interoperability being considered 228 the challenges do not occur by the device itself but the means in which databases are warehouses are set up these challenges were commonly identified in manufactures and enterprises which have begun upon digital transformation and are part of the digital foundation indicating that in order to receive the optimal benefits from iot devices and for decision making enterprises will have to first re align their data storing methods these challenges were identified by keller 2021 when investigating the it and application landscape of i4 0 implementation within german m e manufactures 228 security edit security is the biggest concern in adopting internet of things technology 229 with concerns that rapid development is happening without appropriate consideration of the profound security challenges involved 230 and the regulatory changes that might be necessary 231 232 most of the technical security concerns are similar to those of conventional servers workstations and smartphones 233 these concerns include using weak authentication forgetting to change default credentials unencrypted messages sent between devices sql injections man in the middle attacks and poor handling of security updates 234 235 however many iot devices have severe operational limitations on the computational power available to them these constraints often make them unable to directly use basic security measures such as implementing firewalls or using strong cryptosystems to encrypt their communications with other devices 236 and the low price and consumer focus of many devices makes a robust security patching system uncommon 237 rather than conventional security vulnerabilities fault injection attacks are on the rise and targeting iot devices a fault injection attack is a physical attack on a device to purposefully introduce faults in the system to change the intended behavior faults might happen unintentionally by environmental noises and electromagnetic fields there are ideas stemmed from control flow integrity cfi to prevent fault injection attacks and system recovery to a healthy state before the fault 238 internet of things devices also have access to new areas of data and can often control physical devices 239 so that even by 2014 it was possible to say that many internet connected appliances could already spy on people in their own homes including televisions kitchen appliances 240 cameras and thermostats 241 computer controlled devices in automobiles such as brakes engine locks hood and trunk releases horn heat and dashboard have been shown to be vulnerable to attackers who have access to the on board network in some cases vehicle computer systems are internet connected allowing them to be exploited remotely 242 by 2008 security researchers had shown the ability to remotely control pacemakers without authority later hackers demonstrated remote control of insulin pumps 243 and implantable cardioverter defibrillators 244 poorly secured internet accessible iot devices can also be subverted to attack others in 2016 a distributed denial of service attack powered by internet of things devices running the mirai malware took down a dns provider and major web sites 245 the mirai botnet had infected roughly 65 000 iot device...