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ay result in fetal loss 260 according to amnesty international discriminatory attitudes towards women and girls also means access to sex education and contraceptives are near impossible in el salvador 261 the organization has also criticized laws and policies which require the husband s consent for a woman to use reproductive health services as being discriminatory and dangerous to women s health and life f or the woman who needs her husband s consent to get contraception the consequences of discrimination can be serious even fatal 262 child and forced marriage main articles child marriage and forced marriage further information dowry and bride price poster against child and forced marriage a child marriage is a marriage where one or both spouses are under 18 a practice that disproportionately affects women 263 264 child marriages are most common in south asia the middle east and sub saharan africa but occur in other parts of the world too the practice of marrying young girls is rooted in patriarchal ideologies of control of female behavior and is also sustained by traditional practices such as dowry and bride price 265 child marriage is strongly connected with protecting female virginity 266 unicef states that 263 marrying girls under 18 years old is rooted in gender discrimination encouraging premature and continuous child bearing and giving preference to boys education child marriage is also a strategy for economic survival as families marry off their daughters at an early age to reduce their economic burden consequences of child marriage include restricted education and employment prospects increased risk of domestic violence child sexual abuse pregnancy and birth complications and social isolation 264 266 early and forced marriage are defined as forms of modern day slavery by the international labour organization 267 in some cases a woman or girl who has been raped may be forced to marry her rapist to restore the honor of her family 249 268 marriage by abduction a practice in which a man abducts the woman or girl whom he wishes to marry and rapes her to force the marriage is common in ethiopia 269 270 271 legal justice and regulations member of the taliban s religious police beating an afghan woman in kabul on august 26 2001 state violence against women is a form of discrimination in several organisation of islamic cooperation oic countries the legal testimony of a woman is worth legally half of that of a man see status of women s testimony in islam such countries include algeria in criminal cases bahrain in sharia courts egypt in family courts iran in most cases iraq in some cases jordan in sharia courts kuwait in family courts libya in some cases morocco in family cases palestine in cases related to marriage divorce and child custody qatar in family law matters syria in sharia courts united arab emirates in some civil matters yemen not allowed to testify at all in cases of adultery and retribution and saudi arabia 272 273 such laws have been criticized by human rights watch and equality now as being discriminatory towards women 274 275 the criminal justice system in many common law countries has also been accused of discriminating against women provocation is in many common law countries a partial defense to murder which converts what would have been murder into manslaughter it is meant to be applied when a person kills in the heat of passion upon being provoked by the behavior of the victim this defense has been criticized as being gendered favoring men because of it being used disproportionately in cases of adultery and other domestic disputes when women are killed by their partners as a result of the defense exhibiting a strong gender bias and being a form of legitimization of male violence against women and minimization of the harm caused by violence against women it has been abolished or restricted in several jurisdictions 276 277 the traditional leniency towards crimes of passion in latin american countries has been deemed to have its origin in the view that women are property 278 in 2002 widney brown advocacy director for human rights watch stated that s o called crimes of passion have a similar dynamic to honor killings in that the women are killed by male family members and the crimes are perceived as excusable or understandable 278 the office of the united nations high commissioner for human rights ohchr has called for the elimination of discriminatory provisions in the legislation including mitigating factors for crimes of passion 279 in the united states some studies have shown that for identical crimes men are given harsher sentences than women controlling for arrest offense criminal history and other pre charge variables sentences are over 60 heavier for men women are more likely to avoid charges entirely and to avoid imprisonment if convicted 280 281 the gender disparity varies according to the nature of the case for example the gender gap is less pronounced in fraud cases than in drug trafficking and firearms this disparity occurs in us federal courts despite guidelines designed to avoid differential sentencing 282 the death penalty may also suffer from gender bias according to shatz and shatz t he present study confirms what earlier studies have shown that the death penalty is imposed on women relatively infrequently and that it is disproportionately imposed for the killing of women 283 there have been several reasons postulated for the gender criminal justice disparity in the united states one of the most common is the expectation that women are predominantly care givers 280 281 282 other possible reasons include the girlfriend theory whereby women are seen as tools of their boyfriends 281 the theory that female defendants are more likely to cooperate with authorities 281 and that women are often successful at turning their violent crime into victimhood by citing defenses such as postpartum depression or battered wife syndrome 284 however none of these theories account for the total disparity 281 and sexism has also been suggested as an underlying cause 285 gender discrimination also helps explain the differences between trial outcomes in which some female defendants are sentenced to death and other female defendants are sentenced to lesser punishments phillip barron argues that female defendants are more likely to be sentenced to death for crimes that violate gender norms such as killing children or killing strangers 286 transgender people face widespread discrimination while incarcerated they are generally housed according to their legal birth sex rather than their gender identity studies have shown that transgender people are at an increased risk for harassment and sexual assault in this environment they may also be denied access to medical procedures related to their reassignment 287 some countries use stoning as a form of capital punishment according to amnesty international the majority of those stoned are women and women are disproportionately affected by stoning because of sexism in the legal system 288 one study found that o n average women receive lighter sentences in comparison with men roughly 30 of the gender differences in incarceration cannot be explained by the observed criminal characteristics of offense and offender we also find evidence of considerable heterogeneity across judges in their treatment of female and male offenders there is little evidence however that tastes for gender discrimination are driving the mean gender disparity or the variance in treatment between judges 289 a 2017 study by knepper found that female plaintiffs filing workplace sex discrimination claims are substantially more likely to settle and win compensation whenever a female judge is assigned to the case additionally female judges are 15 percentage points less likely than male judges to grant motions filed by defendants which suggests that final negotiations are shaped by the emergence of the bias 290 education main articles sex differences in education and sexism in academia women have traditionally had limited access to higher education 291 page needed in the past when women were admitted to higher education they were encouraged to major in less scientific subjects the study of english literature in american and british colleges and universities was instituted as a field considered suitable to women s lesser intellects 292 page needed educational specialties in higher education produce and perpetuate inequality between men and women 293 disparity persists particularly in computer and information science where in the us women received only 21 of the undergraduate degrees and in engineering where women obtained only 19 of the degrees in 2008 294 only one out of five of physics doctorates in the us are awarded to women and only about half those women are american 295 of all the physics professors in the country only 14 are women 295 as of 2019 women account for just 27 of all workers in stem fields and on average earn almost 20 less than men in the same industries 296 world literacy is lower for females than for males data from the world factbook shows that 79 7 of women are literate compared to 88 6 of men aged 15 and over 297 in some parts of the world girls continue to be excluded from proper public or private education in parts of afghanistan girls who go to school face serious violence from some local community members and religious groups 298 according to 2010 un estimates only afghanistan pakistan and yemen had less than 90 girls per 100 boys at school 299 jayachandran and lleras muney s study of sri lankan economic development has suggested that increases in the life expectancy for women encourages educational investment because a longer time horizon increases the value of investments that pay out over time 300 educational opportunities and outcomes for women have greatly improved in the west since 1991 the proportion of women enrolled in college in the united states has exceeded the enrollment rate for men and the gap has widened over time 301 as of 2007 update women made up the majority 54 of the 10 8 million college students enrolled in the united states 302 however research by diane halpern has indicated that boys receive more attention praise blame and punishment in the grammar school classroom 303 and this pattern of more active teacher attention directed at male students continues at the postsecondary level 304 over time female students speak less in a classroom setting 305 teachers also tend to spend more time supporting the academic achievements of girls 306 boys are frequently diagnosed with adhd which some see as a result of school systems being more likely to apply these labels to males 307 a recent study by the oecd in over 60 countries found that teachers give boys lower grades for the same work the researchers attribute this to stereotypical ideas about boys and recommend teachers to be aware of this gender bias 308 one study found that students give female professors worse evaluation scores than male professors even though the students appear to do as well under female professors as male professors 309 gender bias and gender based discrimination still permeate the education process in many settings for example in the teaching and learning process including differential engagement expectations and interactions by teachers with their male and female students as well as gender stereotypes in textbooks and learning materials there has been a lack in adequate resources and infrastructure to ensure safe and enabling learning environments and insufficient policy legal and planning frameworks that respect protect and fulfil the right to education 310 fashion see also foot binding and burqa further information gendered associations of pink and blue louis xv in 1712 a boy wearing a pink dress chinese woman shows the effect of foot binding feminists argue that clothing and footwear fashion have been oppressive to women restricting their movements increasing their vulnerability and endangering their health 311 using thin models in the fashion industry has encouraged the development of bulimia and anorexia nervosa as well as locking female consumers into false feminine identities 312 the assignment of gender specific baby clothes can instill in children a belief in negative gender stereotypes 313 one example is the assignment in some countries of the color pink to girls and blue to boys the fashion is recent one at the beginning of the 20th century the trend was the opposite blue for girls and pink for boys 314 in the early 1900s the women s journal wrote that pink being a more decided and stronger colour is more suitable for the boy while blue which is more delicate and dainty is prettier for the girl dressmaker magazine also explained that t he preferred colour to dress young boys in is pink blue is reserved for girls as it is considered paler and the more dainty of the two colours and pink is thought to be stronger akin to red 315 today in many countries it is considered inappropriate for boys to wear dresses and skirts but this is also a relatively recent view from the mid 16th century 316 until the late 19th or early 20th century young boys in the western world were unbreeched and wore gowns or dresses until an age that varied between two and eight 317 laws that dictate how women must dress are seen by many international human rights organizations such as amnesty international as gender discrimination 318 in many countries women face violence for failing to adhere to certain dress codes whether by the authorities such as the religious police family members or the community 319 320 amnesty international states interpretations of religion culture or tradition cannot justify imposing rules about dress on those who choose to dress differently states should take measures to protect individuals from being coerced to dress in specific ways by family members community or religious groups or leaders 318 the production process also faces criticism for sexist practices in the garment industry approximately 80 percent of workers are female 321 much garment production is located in asia because of low labor costs women who work in these factories are sexually harassed by managers and male workers paid low wages and discriminated against when pregnant 322 conscription main article conscription and sexism israeli female soldiers conscription or compulsory military service has been criticized as sexist 323 102 324 prior to the late 20th century only men were subjected to conscription 323 255 325 326 327 328 and most countries still require only men to serve in the military in his book the second sexism discrimination against men and boys 2012 philosopher david benatar states that t he prevailing assumption is that where conscription is necessary it is only men who should be conscripted and similarly that only males should be forced into combat this he believes is a sexist assumption 323 102 ...