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scara robots are used for jobs that require precise lateral movements they are ideal for assembly applications 5 delta robots edit main article delta robot delta robots 4 are also referred to as parallel link robots 5 they consist of parallel links connected to a common base delta robots are particularly useful for direct control tasks and high maneuvering operations such as quick pick and place tasks delta robots take advantage of four bar or parallelogram linkage systems furthermore industrial robots can have a serial or parallel architecture serial manipulators edit main article serial manipulator serial architectures a k a serial manipulators are the most common industrial robots and they are designed as a series of links connected by motor actuated joints that extend from a base to an end effector scara stanford manipulators are typical examples of this category parallel architecture edit a parallel manipulator is designed so that each chain is usually short simple and can thus be rigid against unwanted movement compared to a serial manipulator errors in one chain s positioning are averaged in conjunction with the others rather than being cumulative each actuator must still move within its own degree of freedom as for a serial robot however in the parallel robot the off axis flexibility of a joint is also constrained by the effect of the other chains it is this closed loop stiffness that makes the overall parallel manipulator stiff relative to its components unlike the serial chain that becomes progressively less rigid with more components lower mobility parallel manipulators and concomitant motion edit a full parallel manipulator can move an object with up to 6 degrees of freedom dof determined by 3 translation 3t and 3 rotation 3r coordinates for full 3t3r m obility however when a manipulation task requires less than 6 dof the use of lower mobility manipulators with fewer than 6 dof may bring advantages in terms of simpler architecture easier control faster motion and lower cost for example the 3 dof delta robot has lower 3t mobility and has proven to be very successful for rapid pick and place translational positioning applications the workspace of lower mobility manipulators may be decomposed into motion and constraint subspaces for example 3 position coordinates constitute the motion subspace of the 3 dof delta robot and the 3 orientation coordinates are in the constraint subspace the motion subspace of lower mobility manipulators may be further decomposed into independent desired and dependent concomitant subspaces consisting of concomitant or parasitic motion which is undesired motion of the manipulator 9 the debilitating effects of concomitant motion should be mitigated or eliminated in the successful design of lower mobility manipulators for example the delta robot does not have parasitic motion since its end effector does not rotate autonomy edit robots exhibit varying degrees of autonomy some robots are programmed to faithfully carry out specific actions over and over again repetitive actions without variation and with a high degree of accuracy these actions are determined by programmed routines that specify the direction acceleration velocity deceleration and distance of a series of coordinated motions other robots are much more flexible as to the orientation of the object on which they are operating or even the task that has to be performed on the object itself which the robot may even need to identify for example for more precise guidance robots often contain machine vision sub systems acting as their visual sensors linked to powerful computers or controllers 10 artificial intelligence is becoming an increasingly important factor in the modern industrial robot history edit the earliest known industrial robot conforming to the iso definition was completed by bill griffith p taylor in 1937 and published in meccano magazine march 1938 11 12 the crane like device was built almost entirely using meccano parts and powered by a single electric motor five axes of movement were possible including grab and grab rotation automation was achieved using punched paper tape to energise solenoids which would facilitate the movement of the crane s control levers the robot could stack wooden blocks in pre programmed patterns the number of motor revolutions required for each desired movement was first plotted on graph paper this information was then transferred to the paper tape which was also driven by the robot s single motor chris shute built a complete replica of the robot in 1997 george devol c 1982 george devol applied for the first robotics patents in 1954 granted in 1961 the first company to produce a robot was unimation founded by devol and joseph f engelberger in 1956 unimation robots were also called programmable transfer machines since their main use at first was to transfer objects from one point to another less than a dozen feet or so apart they used hydraulic actuators and were programmed in joint coordinates i e the angles of the various joints were stored during a teaching phase and replayed in operation they were accurate to within 1 10 000 of an inch 13 note although accuracy is not an appropriate measure for robots usually evaluated in terms of repeatability see later unimation later licensed their technology to kawasaki heavy industries and gkn manufacturing unimates in japan and england respectively for some time unimation s only competitor was cincinnati milacron inc of ohio this changed radically in the late 1970s when several big japanese conglomerates began producing similar industrial robots in 1969 victor scheinman at stanford university invented the stanford arm an all electric 6 axis articulated robot designed to permit an arm solution this allowed it accurately to follow arbitrary paths in space and widened the potential use of the robot to more sophisticated applications such as assembly and welding scheinman then designed a second arm for the mit ai lab called the mit arm scheinman after receiving a fellowship from unimation to develop his designs sold those designs to unimation who further developed them with support from general motors and later marketed it as the programmable universal machine for assembly puma industrial robotics took off quite quickly in europe with both abb robotics and kuka robotics bringing robots to the market in 1973 abb robotics formerly asea introduced irb 6 among the world s first commercially available all electric micro processor controlled robot the first two irb 6 robots were sold to magnusson in sweden for grinding and polishing pipe bends and were installed in production in january 1974 also in 1973 kuka robotics built its first robot known as famulus 14 15 also one of the first articulated robots to have six electromechanically driven axes interest in robotics increased in the late 1970s and many us companies entered the field including large firms like general electric and general motors which formed joint venture fanuc robotics with fanuc ltd of japan u s startup companies included automatix and adept technology inc at the height of the robot boom in 1984 unimation was acquired by westinghouse electric corporation for 107 million u s dollars westinghouse sold unimation to stäubli faverges sca of france in 1988 which is still making articulated robots for general industrial and cleanroom applications and even bought the robotic division of bosch in late 2004 only a few non japanese companies ultimately managed to survive in this market the major ones being adept technology stäubli the swedish swiss company abb asea brown boveri the german company kuka robotics and the italian company comau technical description edit defining parameters edit number of axes two axes are required to reach any point in a plane three axes are required to reach any point in space to fully control the orientation of the end of the arm i e the wrist three more axes yaw pitch and roll are required some designs e g the scara robot trade limitations in motion possibilities for cost speed and accuracy degrees of freedom this is usually the same as the number of axes working envelope the region of space a robot can reach kinematics the actual arrangement of rigid members and joints in the robot which determines the robot s possible motions classes of robot kinematics include articulated cartesian parallel and scara carrying capacity or payload how much weight a robot can lift speed how fast the robot can position the end of its arm this may be defined in terms of the angular or linear speed of each axis or as a compound speed i e the speed of the end of the arm when all axes are moving acceleration how quickly an axis can accelerate since this is a limiting factor a robot may not be able to reach its specified maximum speed for movements over a short distance or a complex path requiring frequent changes of direction accuracy how closely a robot can reach a commanded position when the absolute position of the robot is measured and compared to the commanded position the error is a measure of accuracy accuracy can be improved with external sensing for example a vision system or infra red see robot calibration accuracy can vary with speed and position within the working envelope and with payload see compliance repeatability how well the robot will return to a programmed position this is not the same as accuracy it may be that when told to go to a certain x y z position that it gets only to within 1 mm of that position this would be its accuracy which may be improved by calibration but if that position is taught into controller memory and each time it is sent there it returns to within 0 1mm of the taught position then the repeatability will be within 0 1mm accuracy and repeatability are different measures repeatability is usually the most important criterion for a robot and is similar to the concept of precision in measurement see accuracy and precision iso 9283 16 sets out a method whereby both accuracy and repeatability can be measured typically a robot is sent to a taught position a number of times and the error is measured at each return to the position after visiting 4 other positions repeatability is then quantified using the standard deviation of those samples in all three dimensions a typical robot can of course make a positional error exceeding that and that could be a problem for the process moreover the repeatability is different in different parts of the working envelope and also changes with speed and payload iso 9283 specifies that accuracy and repeatability should be measured at maximum speed and at maximum payload but this results in pessimistic values whereas the robot could be much more accurate and repeatable at light loads and speeds repeatability in an industrial process is also subject to the accuracy of the end effector for example a gripper and even to the design of the fingers that match the gripper to the object being grasped for example if a robot picks a screw by its head the screw could be at a random angle a subsequent attempt to insert the screw into a hole could easily fail these and similar scenarios can be improved with lead ins e g by making the entrance to the hole tapered motion control for some applications such as simple pick and place assembly the robot need merely return repeatably to a limited number of pre taught positions for more sophisticated applications such as welding and finishing spray painting motion must be continuously controlled to follow a path in space with controlled orientation and velocity power source some robots use electric motors others use hydraulic actuators the former are faster the latter are stronger and advantageous in applications such as spray painting where a spark could set off an explosion however low internal air pressurisation of the arm can prevent ingress of flammable vapours as well as other contaminants nowadays it is highly unlikely to see any hydraulic robots in the market additional sealings brushless electric motors and spark proof protection eased the construction of units that are able to work in the environment with an explosive atmosphere drive some robots connect electric motors to the joints via gears others connect the motor to the joint directly direct drive using gears results in measurable backlash which is free movement in an axis smaller robot arms frequently employ high speed low torque dc motors which generally require high gearing ratios this has the disadvantage of backlash in such cases the harmonic drive is often used compliance this is a measure of the amount in angle or distance that a robot axis will move when a force is applied to it because of compliance when a robot goes to a position carrying its maximum payload it will be at a position slightly lower than when it is carrying no payload compliance can also be responsible for overshoot when carrying high payloads in which case acceleration would need to be reduced robot programming and interfaces edit offline programming a typical well used teach pendant with optional mouse the setup or programming of motions and sequences for an industrial robot is typically taught by linking the robot controller to a laptop desktop computer or internal or internet network a robot and a collection of machines or peripherals is referred to as a workcell or cell a typical cell might contain a parts feeder a molding machine and a robot the various machines are integrated and controlled by a single computer or plc how the robot interacts with other machines in the cell must be programmed both with regard to their positions in the cell and synchronizing with them software the computer is installed with corresponding interface software the use of a computer greatly simplifies the programming process specialized robot software is run either in the robot controller or in the computer or both depending on the system design there are two basic entities that need to be taught or programmed positional data and procedure for example in a task to move a screw from a feeder to a hole the positions of the feeder and the hole must first be taught or programmed secondly the procedure to get the screw from the feeder to the hole must be programmed along with any i o involved for example a signal to indicate when the screw is in the feeder ready to be picked up the purpose of the robot software is to facilitate both these programming tasks teaching the robot positions may be achieved a number of ways positional commands the robot can be directed to the required position using a gui or text based commands in which the required x y z position may be specified and edited teach pendant robot positions can be taught via a teach pendant this is a handheld control and programming unit the common features of such units are the ability to manually send the robot to a desired position or inch or jog to adjust a position they also have a means to change the speed ...