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kahng and simon sze of bell labs proposed that the floating gate of a mos semiconductor device could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable rom which led to dov frohman of intel inventing eprom erasable prom in 1971 28 eeprom electrically erasable prom was developed by yasuo tarui yutaka hayashi and kiyoko naga at the electrotechnical laboratory in 1972 29 flash memory was invented by fujio masuoka at toshiba in the early 1980s 30 31 masuoka and colleagues presented the invention of nor flash in 1984 32 and then nand flash in 1987 33 toshiba commercialized nand flash memory in 1987 34 35 36 developments in technology and economies of scale have made possible so called very large memory vlm computers 36 volatile memory edit various memory modules containing different types of dram from top to bottom ddr sdram sdram edo dram and fpm dram main article volatile memory volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information most modern semiconductor volatile memory is either static ram sram or dynamic ram dram a dram dominates for desktop system memory sram is used for cpu cache sram is also found in small embedded systems requiring little memory sram retains its contents as long as the power is connected and may use a simpler interface but requires six transistors per bit dynamic ram is more complicated for interfacing and control needing regular refresh cycles to prevent losing its contents but uses only one transistor and one capacitor per bit allowing it to reach much higher densities and much cheaper per bit costs 1 22 36 non volatile memory edit main article non volatile memory non volatile memory can retain the stored information even when not powered examples of non volatile memory include read only memory flash memory most types of magnetic computer storage devices e g hard disk drives floppy disks and magnetic tape optical discs and early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punched cards 36 non volatile memory technologies under development include ferroelectric ram programmable metallization cell spin transfer torque magnetic ram sonos resistive random access memory racetrack memory nano ram 3d xpoint and millipede memory semi volatile memory edit a third category of memory is semi volatile the term is used to describe a memory that has some limited non volatile duration after power is removed but then data is ultimately lost a typical goal when using a semi volatile memory is to provide the high performance and durability associated with volatile memories while providing some benefits of non volatile memory for example some non volatile memory types experience wear when written a worn cell has increased volatility but otherwise continues to work data locations which are written frequently can thus be directed to use worn circuits as long as the location is updated within some known retention time the data stays valid after a period of time without update the value is copied to a less worn circuit with longer retention writing first to the worn area allows a high write rate while avoiding wear on the not worn circuits 37 as a second example an stt ram can be made non volatile by building large cells but doing so raises the cost per bit and power requirements and reduces the write speed using small cells improves cost power and speed but leads to semi volatile behavior in some applications the increased volatility can be managed to provide many benefits of a non volatile memory for example by removing power but forcing a wake up before data is lost or by caching read only data and discarding the cached data if the power off time exceeds the non volatile threshold 38 the term semi volatile is also used to describe semi volatile behavior constructed from other memory types for example a volatile and a non volatile memory may be combined where an external signal copies data from the volatile memory to the non volatile memory but if power is removed before the copy occurs the data is lost or a battery backed volatile memory and if external power is lost there is some known period where the battery can continue to power the volatile memory but if power is off for an extended time the battery runs down and data is lost 36 management edit main article memory management proper management of memory is vital for a computer system to operate properly modern operating systems have complex systems to properly manage memory failure to do so can lead to bugs slow performance or takeover by viruses and malicious software bugs edit improper management of memory is a common cause of bugs including the following types a memory leak occurs when a program requests memory from the operating system and never returns the memory when it s done with it a program with this bug will gradually require more and more memory until the program fails as the operating system runs out a segmentation fault results when a program tries to access memory that it does not have permission to access generally a program doing so will be terminated by the operating system a buffer overflow occurs when a program writes data to the end of its allocated space and then continues to write data beyond this to memory that has been allocated for other purposes this may result in erratic program behavior including memory access errors incorrect results a crash or a breach of system security they are thus the basis of many software vulnerabilities and can be maliciously exploited early computer systems edit in early computer systems programs typically specified the location to write memory and what data to put there this location was a physical location on the actual memory hardware early computers did not have the complex memory management systems used today this approach has its pitfalls if the location specified is incorrect this will cause the computer to write the data to some other part of the program the results of an error like this are unpredictable in some cases the error might overwrite memory used by the operating system hackers can take advantage of this lack of protection to create viruses and malware virtual memory edit main article virtual memory virtual memory is a system where all physical memory is controlled by the operating system when a program needs memory it requests it from the operating system the operating system then decides in what physical location to place the program s code and data this offers several advantages computer programmers no longer need to worry about where their data is physically stored or whether the user s computer will have enough memory it also allows multiple types of memory to be used for example some data can be stored in physical ram chips while other data is stored on a hard drive e g in a swapfile functioning as an extension of the cache hierarchy this drastically increases the amount of memory available to programs the operating system will place actively used data in physical ram which is much faster than hard disks when the amount of ram is not sufficient to run all the current programs it can result in a situation where the computer spends more time moving data from ram to disk and back than it does accomplishing tasks this is known as thrashing protected memory edit main article memory protection protected memory is a system where each program is given an area of memory to use and is not permitted to go outside that range use of protected memory greatly enhances both the reliability and security of a computer system without protected memory it is possible that a bug in one program will alter the memory used by another program this will cause that other program to run off of corrupted memory with unpredictable results if the operating system s memory is corrupted the entire computer system may crash and need to be rebooted at times programs intentionally alter the memory used by other programs this is done by viruses and malware to take over computers it may also be used benignly by desirable programs which are intended to modify other programs in the modern age this is generally considered bad programming practice for application programs but it may be used by system development tools such as debuggers for example to insert breakpoints or hooks protected memory assigns programs their own areas of memory if the operating system detects that a program has tried to alter memory that does not belong to it the program is terminated or otherwise restricted or redirected this way only the offending program crashes and other programs are not affected by the misbehavior whether accidental or intentional protected memory systems almost always include virtual memory as well see also edit wikimedia commons has media related to computer memory memory geometry memory hierarchy memory organization processor registers store data but normally are not considered as memory since they only store one word and do not include an addressing mechanism semiconductor memory units of information notes edit other volatile memory technologies that have attempted to compete or replace sram and dram include z ram and a ram references edit a b hemmendinger david february 15 2016 computer memory encyclopedia britannica retrieved 16 october 2019 a m turing and r a brooker 1952 programmer s handbook for manchester electronic computer mark ii archived 2014 01 02 at the wayback machine university of manchester documentation for proc sys vm the mos memory market pdf integrated circuit engineering corporation smithsonian institution 1997 retrieved 16 october 2019 mos memory market trends pdf integrated circuit engineering corporation smithsonian institution 1998 retrieved 16 october 2019 1960 metal oxide semiconductor mos transistor demonstrated the silicon engine computer history museum 1953 whirlwind computer debuts core memory computer history museum retrieved 2 august 2019 a b c d e f 1966 semiconductor rams serve high speed storage needs computer history museum retrieved 19 june 2019 1953 transistors make fast memories the storage engine computer history museum www computerhistory org retrieved 2019 11 14 orton john w 2009 semiconductors and the information revolution magic crystals that made it happen academic press p 104 isbn 978 0 08 096390 7 solid state design vol 6 horizon house 1965 a b c 1970 mos dynamic ram competes with magnetic core memory on price computer history museum retrieved 29 july 2019 wood j ball r february 1965 the use of insulated gate field effect transistors in digital storage systems 1965 ieee international solid state circuits conference digest of technical papers 1965 ieee international solid state circuits conference digest of technical papers vol viii pp 82 83 doi 10 1109 isscc 1965 1157606 1968 silicon gate technology developed for ics computer history museum retrieved 10 august 2019 critchlow d l 2007 recollections on mosfet scaling ieee solid state circuits society newsletter 12 1 19 22 doi 10 1109 n ssc 2007 4785536 a b dram ibm100 ibm 9 august 2017 retrieved 20 september 2019 spec sheet for toshiba toscal bc 1411 old calculator web museum archived from the original on 3 july 2017 retrieved 8 may 2018 toshiba toscal bc 1411 desktop calculator archived from the original on 2007 05 20 1966 semiconductor rams serve high speed storage needs computer history museum robert dennard encyclopedia britannica retrieved 8 july 2019 intel 35 years of innovation 1968 2003 pdf intel 2003 retrieved 26 june 2019 a b the dram memory of robert dennard history computer com lojek bo 2007 history of semiconductor engineering springer science business media pp 362 363 isbn 9783540342588 the i1103 was manufactured on a 6 mask silicon gate p mos process with 8 μm minimum features the resulting product had a 2 400 µm 2 memory cell size a die size just under 10 mm² and sold for around 21 km48sl2000 7 datasheet samsung august 1992 retrieved 19 june 2019 electronic design electronic design hayden publishing company 41 15 21 1993 the first commercial synchronous dram the samsung 16 mbit km48sl2000 employs a single bank architecture that lets system designers easily transition from asynchronous to synchronous systems han way huang 5 december 2008 embedded system design with c805 cengage learning p 22 isbn 978 1 111 81079 5 archived from the original on 27 april 2018 marie aude aufaure esteban zimányi 17 january 2013 business intelligence second european summer school ebiss 2012 brussels belgium july 15 21 2012 tutorial lectures springer p 136 isbn 978 3 642 36318 4 archived from the original on 27 april 2018 1971 reusable semiconductor rom introduced computer history museum retrieved 19 june 2019 tarui y hayashi y nagai k 1972 electrically reprogrammable nonvolatile semiconductor memory ieee journal of solid state circuits 7 5 369 375 bibcode 1972ijssc 7 369t doi 10 1109 jssc 1972 1052895 issn 0018 9200 fulford benjamin 24 june 2002 unsung hero forbes archived from the original on 3 march 2008 retrieved 18 march 2008 us 4531203 fujio masuoka toshiba inventor of flash memory toshiba retrieved 20 june 2019 masuoka f momodomi m iwata y shirota r 1987 1987 international electron devices meeting electron devices meeting 1987 international iedm 1987 ieee pp 552 555 doi 10 1109 iedm 1987 191485 1987 toshiba launches nand flash eweek april 11 2012 retrieved 20 june 2019 1971 reusable semiconductor rom introduced computer history museum retrieved 19 june 2019 a b c d e stanek william r 2009 windows server 2008 inside out o reilly media inc p 1520 isbn 978 0 7356 3806 8 archived from the original on 2013 01 27 retrieved 2012 08 20 windows server enterprise supports clustering with up to eight node clusters and very large memory vlm configurations of up to 32 gb on 32 bit systems and 2 tb on 64 bit systems montierth briggs keithley semi volatile nand flash memory retrieved 20 may 2018 cite web cs1 maint multiple names authors list link keppel naeimi nasrullah method and apparatus for managing a spin transfer torque memory google patents retrieved 20 may 2018 cite web cs1 maint multiple names authors list link further reading edit miller stephen w 1977 memory and storage technology montvale afips press memory and storage technology alexandria virginia time life books 1988 authority control national libraries france data germany israel united states v t e basic computer components input devices pointing devices graphics tablet game controller light pen mouse optical optical trackpad pointing stick touchpad touchscreen trackball other keyboard image scanner graphics card gpu microphone refreshable braille display sound card sound chip webcam softcam output devices monitor screen refreshable braille display printer plotter speakers sound card graphics card removable data storage disk pack floppy disk optical disc cd dvd blu ray flash memory memory card usb flash drive computer case central processing unit microprocessor motherboard memory ram bios data storage hdd ssd sata nvme sshd power supply smps...