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speaking french in algeria 170 morocco 165 and the city of tunis 171 172 while most north africans continue to use arabic or berber as their mother tongue citation needed leadership main article jewish leadership there is no single governing body for the jewish community nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine 173 instead a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local national and international levels lead various parts of the jewish community on a variety of issues 174 today many countries have a chief rabbi who serves as a representative of that country s jewry although many hassidic jews follow a certain hereditary hasidic dynasty there is no one commonly accepted leader of all hasidic jews many jews believe that the messiah will act a unifying leader for jews and the entire world 175 theories on ancient jewish national identity bible manuscript in hebrew 14th century hebrew language and alphabet were the cornerstones of the jewish national identity in antiquity a number of modern scholars of nationalism support the existence of jewish national identity in antiquity one of them is david goodblatt 176 who generally believes in the existence of nationalism before the modern period in his view the bible the parabiblical literature and the jewish national history provide the base for a jewish collective identity although many of the ancient jews were illiterate as were their neighbors their national narrative was reinforced through public readings a common practice in the ancient eastern mediterranean area the hebrew language also constructed and preserved national identity although it was not spoken by most of the jews after the 5th century bce goodblatt contends that 177 178 the mere presence of the language in spoken or written form could invoke the concept of a jewish national identity even if one knew no hebrew or was illiterate one could recognize that a group of signs was in hebrew script it was the language of the israelite ancestors the national literature and the national religion as such it was inseparable from the national identity indeed its mere presence in visual or aural medium could invoke that identity it is believed that jewish nationalist sentiment in antiquity was encouraged because under foreign rule persians greeks romans jews were able to claim that they were an ancient nation this claim was based on the preservation and reverence of their scriptures the hebrew language the temple and priesthood and other traditions of their ancestors 179 demographics further information jewish population by country ethnic divisions main article jewish ethnic divisions ashkenazi jews of late 19th century eastern europe portrayed in jews praying in the synagogue on yom kippur 1878 by maurycy gottlieb sephardi jewish couple from sarajevo in traditional clothing photo taken in 1900 yemenite jew blows shofar 1947 within the world s jewish population there are distinct ethnic divisions most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating israelite population and subsequent independent evolutions an array of jewish communities was established by jewish settlers in various places around the old world often at great distances from one another resulting in effective and often long term isolation during the millennia of the jewish diaspora the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments political cultural natural and populational today manifestations of these differences among the jews can be observed in jewish cultural expressions of each community including jewish linguistic diversity culinary preferences liturgical practices religious interpretations as well as degrees and sources of genetic admixture 180 jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups the ashkenazim and the sephardim ashkenazim or germanics ashkenaz meaning germany in hebrew are so named denoting their german jewish cultural and geographical origins while sephardim or hispanics sefarad meaning spain hispania or iberia in hebrew are so named denoting their spanish portuguese jewish cultural and geographic origins the more common term in israel for many of those broadly called sephardim is mizrahim lit easterners mizrach being east in hebrew that is in reference to the diverse collection of middle eastern and north african jews who are often as a group referred to collectively as sephardim together with sephardim proper for liturgical reasons although mizrahi jewish groups and sephardi jews proper are ethnically distinct 181 smaller groups include but are not restricted to indian jews such as the bene israel bnei menashe cochin jews and bene ephraim the romaniotes of greece the italian jews italkim or bené roma the teimanim from yemen various african jews including most numerously the beta israel of ethiopia and chinese jews most notably the kaifeng jews as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities 182 the divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear the mizrahim for example are a heterogeneous collection of north african central asian caucasian and middle eastern jewish communities that are no closer related to each other than they are to any of the earlier mentioned jewish groups in modern usage however the mizrahim are sometimes termed sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy despite independent development from sephardim proper thus among mizrahim there are egyptian jews iraqi jews lebanese jews kurdish jews moroccan jews libyan jews syrian jews bukharian jews mountain jews georgian jews iranian jews afghan jews and various others the teimanim from yemen are sometimes included although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in mizrahim in addition there is a differentiation made between sephardi migrants who established themselves in the middle east and north africa after the expulsion of the jews from spain and portugal in the 1490s and the pre existing jewish communities in those regions 182 ashkenazi jews represent the bulk of modern jewry with at least 70 percent of jews worldwide and up to 90 percent prior to world war ii and the holocaust as a result of their emigration from europe ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of jews in the new world continents in countries such as the united states canada argentina australia and brazil in france the immigration of jews from algeria sephardim has led them to outnumber the ashkenazim 182 only in israel is the jewish population representative of all groups a melting pot independent of each group s proportion within the overall world jewish population 183 genetic studies main article genetic studies on jews y dna studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths 184 in most jewish populations these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly middle eastern for example ashkenazi jews share more common paternal lineages with other jewish and middle eastern groups than with non jewish populations in areas where jews lived in eastern europe germany and the french rhine valley this is consistent with jewish traditions in placing most jewish paternal origins in the region of the middle east 185 186 conversely the maternal lineages of jewish populations studied by looking at mitochondrial dna are generally more heterogeneous 187 scholars such as harry ostrer and raphael falk believe this indicates that many jewish males found new mates from european and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient israel 188 in contrast behar has found evidence that about 40 percent of ashkenazi jews originate maternally from just four female founders who were of middle eastern origin the populations of sephardi and mizrahi jewish communities showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect 187 subsequent studies carried out by feder et al confirmed the large portion of non local maternal origin among ashkenazi jews reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of ashkenazi jews the authors conclude clearly the differences between jews and non jews are far larger than those observed among the jewish communities hence differences between the jewish communities can be overlooked when non jews are included in the comparisons 9 189 190 a study showed that 7 of ashkenazi jews have the haplogroup g2c which is mainly found in pashtuns and on lower scales all major jewish groups palestinians syrians and lebanese 191 192 studies of autosomal dna which look at the entire dna mixture have become increasingly important as the technology develops they show that jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities with most in a community sharing significant ancestry in common 193 for jewish populations of the diaspora the genetic composition of ashkenazi sephardi and mizrahi jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared middle eastern ancestry according to behar the most parsimonious explanation for this shared middle eastern ancestry is that it is consistent with the historical formulation of the jewish people as descending from ancient hebrew and israelite residents of the levant and the dispersion of the people of ancient israel throughout the old world 194 north african italian and others of iberian origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines in the case of ashkenazi and sephardi jews in particular moroccan jews who are closely related the source of non jewish admixture is mainly southern european while mizrahi jews show evidence of admixture with other middle eastern populations behar et al have remarked on a close relationship between ashkenazi jews and modern italians 194 195 a 2001 study found that jews were more closely related to groups of the fertile crescent kurds turks and armenians than to their arab neighbors whose genetic signature was found in geographic patterns reflective of islamic conquests 185 196 the studies also show that sephardic bnei anusim descendants of the anusim who were forced to convert to catholicism which comprise up to 19 8 percent of the population of today s iberia spain and portugal and at least 10 percent of the population of ibero america hispanic america and brazil have sephardic jewish ancestry within the last few centuries the bene israel and cochin jews of india beta israel of ethiopia and a portion of the lemba people of southern africa despite more closely resembling the local populations of their native countries have also been thought to have some more remote ancient jewish ancestry 197 194 198 190 views on the lemba have changed and genetic y dna analyses in the 2000s have established a partially middle eastern origin for a portion of the male lemba population but have been unable to narrow this down further 199 200 population centers for a more comprehensive list see list of urban areas by jewish population new york city is home to 1 1 million jews making it the largest jewish community outside of israel although historically jews have been found all over the world in the decades since world war ii and the establishment of israel they have increasingly concentrated in a small number of countries 201 202 in 2013 the united states and israel were collectively home to more than 80 percent of the global jewish population each country having approximately 41 percent of the world s jews 203 according to the israel central bureau of statistics there were 13 421 000 jews worldwide in 2009 roughly 0 19 percent of the world s population at the time 204 according to the 2007 estimates of the jewish people policy planning institute the world s jewish population is 13 2 million 205 adherents com cites figures ranging from 12 to 18 million 206 these statistics incorporate both practicing jews affiliated with synagogues and the jewish community and approximately 4 5 million unaffiliated and secular jews citation needed according to sergio della pergola a demographer of the jewish population in 2015 there were about 6 3 million jews in israel 5 7 million in the united states and 2 3 million in the rest of the world 207 israel main article israeli jews jewish people in jerusalem israel israel the jewish nation state is the only country in which jews make up a majority of the citizens 208 israel was established as an independent democratic and jewish state on 14 may 1948 209 of the 120 members in its parliament the knesset 210 as of 2016 update 14 members of the knesset are arab citizens of israel not including the druze most representing arab political parties one of israel s supreme court judges is also an arab citizen of israel 211 between 1948 and 1958 the jewish population rose from 800 000 to two million 212 currently jews account for 75 4 percent of the israeli population or 6 million people 213 214 the early years of the state of israel were marked by the mass immigration of holocaust survivors in the aftermath of the holocaust and jews fleeing arab lands 215 israel also has a large population of ethiopian jews many of whom were airlifted to israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s 216 better source needed between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227 258 immigrants arrived in israel about half being from the soviet union 217 this period also saw an increase in immigration to israel from western europe latin america and north america 218 a trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived including indian jews and others as well as some descendants of ashkenazi holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the united states argentina australia chile and south africa some jews have emigrated from israel elsewhere because of economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing arab israeli conflict jewish israeli emigrants are known as yordim 219 diaspora outside israel main article jewish diaspora in this rosh hashana greeting card from the early 1900s russian jews packs in hand gaze at the american relatives beckoning them to the united states over two million jews fled the pogroms of the russian empire to the safety of the u s between 1881 and 1924 220 a menorah dominating the main square in birobidzhan an estimated 70 000 jews live in siberia 221 the waves of immigration to the united states and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century the founding of zionism and later events including pogroms in imperial russia mostly within the pale of settlement in present day ukraine moldova belarus and eastern poland the massacre of european jewry during the holocaust and the founding of the state of israel with the subsequent jewish exodus from arab lands all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world jewry ...