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Text of the page (random words):
ing falsely limited alternatives a false dilemma also referred to as false dichotomy or false binary is an informal fallacy based on a premise that erroneously limits what options are available the source of the fallacy lies not in an invalid form of inference but in a false premise this premise has the form of a disjunctive claim it asserts that one among a number of alternatives must be true this disjunction is problematic because it oversimplifies the choice by excluding viable alternatives presenting the viewer with only two absolute choices when in fact there could be many for example a false dilemma is committed when it is claimed that stacey spoke out against capitalism therefore she must be a communist one of the options excluded is that stacey may be neither communist nor capitalist false dilemmas often have the form of treating two contraries which may both be false as contradictories of which one is necessarily true various inferential schemes are associated with false dilemmas for example the constructive dilemma the destructive dilemma or the disjunctive syllogism false dilemmas are usually discussed in terms of deductive arguments but they can also occur as defeasible arguments our liability to commit false dilemmas may be due to the tendency to simplify reality by ordering it through either or statements which is to some extent already built into our language this may also be connected to the tendency to insist on clear distinction while denying the vagueness of many common expressions contents 1 definition 2 types 2 1 disjunction with contraries 2 2 logical forms 2 3 deductive and defeasible arguments 3 explanation and avoidance 4 relation to distinctions and vagueness 5 examples 5 1 false choice 5 2 black and white thinking 6 similar concepts 7 see also 8 references 9 external links definition edit a false dilemma is an informal fallacy based on a premise that erroneously limits what options are available 1 2 3 in its most simple form called the fallacy of bifurcation all but two alternatives are excluded a fallacy is an argument i e a series of premises together with a conclusion that is unsound i e not both valid and true fallacies are usually divided into formal and informal fallacies formal fallacies are unsound because of their structure while informal fallacies are unsound because of their content 3 4 1 5 the problematic content in the case of the false dilemma has the form of a disjunctive claim it asserts that one among a number of alternatives must be true this disjunction is problematic because it oversimplifies the choice by excluding viable alternatives 1 sometimes a distinction is made between a false dilemma and a false dichotomy on this view the term false dichotomy refers to the false disjunctive claim while the term false dilemma refers not just to this claim but to the argument based on this claim 1 types edit disjunction with contraries edit in its most common form a false dilemma presents the alternatives as contradictories while in truth they are merely contraries 5 6 two propositions are contradictories if it has to be the case that one is true and the other is false two propositions are contraries if at most one of them can be true but this leaves open the option that both of them might be false which is not possible in the case of contradictories 5 contradictories follow the law of the excluded middle but contraries do not 6 for example the sentence the exact number of marbles in the urn is either 10 or not 10 presents two contradictory alternatives the sentence the exact number of marbles in the urn is either 10 or 11 presents two contrary alternatives the urn could also contain 2 marbles or 17 marbles or a common form of using contraries in false dilemmas is to force a choice between extremes on the agent someone is either good or bad rich or poor normal or abnormal such cases ignore that there is a continuous spectrum between the extremes that is excluded from the choice 5 while false dilemmas involving contraries i e exclusive options are a very common form this is just a special case there are also arguments with non exclusive disjunctions that are false dilemmas 1 for example a choice between security and freedom does not involve contraries since these two terms are compatible with each other 5 logical forms edit in logic there are two main types of inferences known as dilemmas the constructive dilemma and the destructive dilemma in their most simple form they can be expressed in the following way 7 6 1 simple constructive p q r q p r q displaystyle frac p to q r to q p lor r therefore q simple destructive p q p r q r p displaystyle frac p to q p to r lnot q lor lnot r therefore lnot p the source of the fallacy is found in the disjunctive claim in the third premise i e p r displaystyle p lor r and q r displaystyle lnot q lor lnot r respectively the following is an example of a false dilemma with the simple constructive form 1 if you tell the truth you force your friend into a social tragedy and therefore are an immoral person 2 if you lie you are an immoral person since it is immoral to lie 3 either you tell the truth or you lie therefore y ou are an immoral person whatever choice you make in the given situation 1 this example constitutes a false dilemma because there are other choices besides telling the truth and lying like keeping silent a false dilemma can also occur in the form of a disjunctive syllogism 6 disjunctive syllogism p q p q displaystyle frac p lor q lnot p therefore q in this form the first premise p q displaystyle p lor q is responsible for the fallacious inference lewis s trilemma is a famous example of this type of argument involving three disjuncts jesus was either a liar a lunatic or lord 3 by denying that jesus was a liar or a lunatic one is forced to draw the conclusion that he was god but this leaves out various other alternatives for example that jesus was a prophet as claimed by the muslims 3 deductive and defeasible arguments edit false dilemmas are usually discussed in terms of deductive arguments but they can also occur as defeasible arguments 1 a valid argument is deductive if the truth of its premises ensures the truth of its conclusion for a valid defeasible argument on the other hand it is possible for all its premises to be true and the conclusion to be false the premises merely offer a certain degree of support for the conclusion but do not ensure it 8 in the case of a defeasible false dilemma the support provided for the conclusion is overestimated since various alternatives are not considered in the disjunctive premise 1 explanation and avoidance edit part of understanding fallacies involves going beyond logic to empirical psychology in order to explain why there is a tendency to commit or fall for the fallacy in question 9 1 in the case of the false dilemma the tendency to simplify reality by ordering it through either or statements may play an important role this tendency is to some extent built into our language which is full of pairs of opposites 5 this type of simplification is sometimes necessary to make decisions when there is not enough time to get a more detailed perspective in order to avoid false dilemmas the agent should become aware of additional options besides the prearranged alternatives critical thinking and creativity may be necessary to see through the false dichotomy and to discover new alternatives 1 relation to distinctions and vagueness edit some philosophers and scholars believe that unless a distinction can be made rigorous and precise it isn t really a distinction 10 an exception is analytic philosopher john searle who called it an incorrect assumption that produces false dichotomies searle insists that it is a condition of the adequacy of a precise theory of an indeterminate phenomenon that it should precisely characterize that phenomenon as indeterminate and a distinction is no less a distinction for allowing for a family of related marginal diverging cases 11 similarly when two options are presented they often are although not always two extreme points on some spectrum of possibilities this may lend credence to the larger argument by giving the impression that the options are mutually exclusive even though they need not be 12 furthermore the options in false dichotomies typically are presented as being collectively exhaustive in which case the fallacy may be overcome or at least weakened by considering other possibilities or perhaps by considering a whole spectrum of possibilities as in fuzzy logic 13 this issue arises from real dichotomies in nature the most prevalent example is the occurrence of an event it either happened or it did not happen this ontology sets a logical construct that cannot be reasonably applied to epistemology examples edit false choice edit the presentation of a false choice often reflects a deliberate attempt to eliminate several options that may occupy the middle ground on an issue a common argument against noise pollution laws involves a false choice it might be argued that in new york city noise should not be regulated because if it were a number of businesses would be required to close this argument assumes that for example a bar must be shut down to prevent disturbing levels of noise emanating from it after midnight this ignores the fact that law could require the bar to lower its noise levels or install soundproofing structural elements to keep the noise from excessively transmitting onto others properties 14 black and white thinking edit see also splitting psychology and binary opposition in psychology a phenomenon related to the false dilemma is black and white thinking or thinking in black and white there are people who routinely engage in black and white thinking an example of which is someone who categorizes other people as all good or all bad 15 similar concepts edit various different terms are used to refer to false dilemmas some of the following terms are equivalent to the term false dilemma some refer to special forms of false dilemmas and others refer to closely related concepts bifurcation fallacy black or white fallacy denying a conjunct similar to a false dichotomy see formal fallacy denying a conjunct double bind either or fallacy fallacy of exhaustive hypotheses fallacy of the excluded middle fallacy of the false alternative 16 false binary false choice false dichotomy invalid disjunction no middle ground see also edit philosophy portal psychology portal bivalence choice architecture degrees of truth dichotomy euthyphro dilemma fallacy of the single cause half truth hobson s choice law of excluded middle lewis trilemma loaded question love hate relationship many valued logic morton s fork mutually exclusive nolan chart nondualism none of the above obscurantism pascal s wager perspectivism political systems one party system two party system rogerian argument show election slippery slope sorites paradox splitting psychology strange loop in cognitive science straw man thinking outside the box unreasonable you re either with us or against us references edit a b c d e f g h i j k tomić taeda 2013 false dilemma a systematic exposition argumentation 27 4 347 368 doi 10 1007 s10503 013 9292 0 s2cid 144781912 dowden bradley fallacies 6 partial list of fallacies internet encyclopedia of philosophy retrieved 13 march 2021 a b c d vleet van jacob e 2010 introduction informal logical fallacies a brief guide upa hansen hans 2020 fallacies the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy metaphysics research lab stanford university retrieved 13 march 2021 a b c d e f engel s morris 1982 4 fallacies of presumption with good reason an introduction to informal fallacies a b c d the black or white fallacy www fallacyfiles org retrieved 13 march 2021 honderich ted 2005 dilemmas the oxford companion to philosophy oxford university press koons robert 2017 defeasible reasoning the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy metaphysics research lab stanford university retrieved 13 march 2021 walton douglas n 1987 3 the logic of propositions informal fallacies towards a theory of argument criticisms john benjamins jacques derrida 1991 afterword toward an ethic of discussion published in the english translation of limited inc pp 123 24 126 searle john 1983 the word turned upside down the new york review of books volume 30 number 16 october 27 1983 baronett stan 2008 logic upper saddle river n j pearson prentice hall p 101 isbn 9780131933125 retrieved 31 october 2015 arfi badredine 2010 linguistic fuzzy logic methods in social sciences 1 ed berlin germany springer isbn 9783642133428 retrieved 31 october 2015 desantis nick 23 january 2012 data shows bars with most noise complaints but is it just sound and fury the new york times retrieved 31 october 2015 aj giannini use of fiction in therapy psychiatric times 18 7 56 57 2001 davies w martin may 2006 an infusion approach to critical thinking moore on the critical thinking debate pdf higher education research development 25 2 179 193 doi 10 1080 07294360600610420 s2cid 144167015 retrieved 2019 07 23 external links edit look up false dilemma or false dichotomy in wiktionary the free dictionary the black or white fallacy entry in the fallacy files v t e fallacies list formal in propositional logic affirming a disjunct affirming the consequent denying the antecedent argument from fallacy masked man mathematical fallacy in quantificational logic existential illicit conversion proof by example quantifier shift syllogistic fallacy affirmative conclusion from a negative premise negative conclusion from affirmative premises exclusive premises existential necessity four terms illicit major illicit minor undistributed middle informal equivocation equivocation false equivalence false attribution quoting out of context loki s wager no true scotsman reification question begging circular reasoning begging the question loaded language leading question compound question loaded question complex question no true scotsman correlative based false dilemma perfect solution denying the correlative suppressed correlative illicit transference composition division ecological secundum quid accident converse accident faulty generalization anecdotal evidence sampling bias cherry picking mcnamara base rate conjunction double counting false analogy slothful induction overwhelming exception ambiguity accent false precision moving the goalposts quoting out of context slippery slope sorites paradox syntactic ambiguity questionable cause animistic furtive correlation implies causation cum hoc post hoc gambler s inverse regression single cause slippery slope texas sharpshooter appeals law legality stone proof by assertion consequences argumentum ad baculum wishful thinking emotion children fear flattery novelty pity ridicule in group favoritism invented here not invented here island mentality loyalty parade of horribles spite stirring symbols wisdom of repugnance genetic gene based ad...