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uch as netflix amazon prime video hulu hbo max disney paramount apple tv and peacock 22 competition among online platforms has forced them to find ways to differentiate themselves one key way they have done this is by offering exclusive content often self produced and created specifically for a market this approach to streaming competition can have disadvantages for consumers and for the industry as a whole once content is made available online the corresponding piracy searches decrease competition or legal availability across multiple platforms effectively deters online piracy and more exclusivity does not necessarily translate into higher average investment in content as investment decisions are also dependent on the level and type of competition in online markets 23 this competition was increased during the first two years of the covid 19 pandemic as more people stayed home and watched tv the covid 19 pandemic has led to a seismic shift in the film tv industry in terms of how films are made distributed and screened many industries have been hit by the economic affect of the pandemic totaro donato 1 in august 2022 a cnn headline declared the streaming wars are over as pandemic era restrictions had largely ended and audience growth had stalled this lead services to focus on profit over market share by cutting production budgets cracking down on password sharing and introducing ad supported tiers 24 use by the general public edit live streaming service at zoo by niconico advances in computer networking combined with powerful home computers and operating systems made streaming media affordable and easy for the public stand alone internet radio devices emerged to offer listeners a non technical option for listening to audio streams these audio streaming services became increasingly popular streaming music reached 118 1 billion streams in 2013 25 streaming creates the illusion greatly magnified by headphone use which is another matter that music is a utility you can turn on and off the water metaphor is intrinsic to how it works it dematerializes music denies it a crucial measure of autonomy reality and power it makes music seem disposable impermanent hence it intensifies the ebb and flow of pop fashion the way musical memes rise up for a week or a month and are then forgotten and it renders our experience of individual artists groups shallower robert christgau 2018 26 in general multimedia content is data intensive so media storage and transmission costs are still significant media is generally compressed for transport and storage increasing consumer demand for streaming of high definition hd content has led the industry to develop technologies such as wirelesshd and g hn which are optimized for streaming hd content many developers have introduced hd streaming apps that work on smaller devices such as tablets and smartphones for everyday purposes a media stream can be streamed either live or on demand live streams are generally provided by a means called true streaming true streaming sends the information straight to the computer or device without saving to a local file on demand streaming is provided by a means called progressive download progressive download saves the received information to a local file and then is played from that location on demand streams are often saved to files for extended amounts of time while the live streams are only available at one time only e g during the football game 27 streaming media is increasingly being coupled with use of social media for example sites such as youtube encourage social interaction in webcasts through features such as live chat online surveys user posting of comments online and more furthermore streaming media is increasingly being used for social business and e learning 28 the horowitz research state of pay tv ott and svod 2017 report said that 70 percent of those viewing content did so through a streaming service and that 40 percent of tv viewing was done this way twice the number from five years earlier millennials the report said streamed 60 percent of content 29 transition from dvd edit one of the movie streaming industry s largest impacts was on the dvd industry which effectively met its demise with the mass popularization of online content the rise of media streaming caused the downfall of many dvd rental companies such as blockbuster in july 2015 the new york times published an article about netflix s dvd services it stated that netflix was continuing their dvd services with 5 3 million subscribers which was a significant drop from the previous year on the other hand their streaming services had 65 million members 30 napster edit music streaming is one of the most popular ways in which consumers interact with streaming media in the age of digitization the private consumption of music transformed into a public good largely due to one player in the market napster napster a peer to peer p2p file sharing network where users could upload and download mp3 files freely broke all music industry conventions when it launched in early 1999 in hull massachusetts the platform was developed by shawn and john fanning as well as sean parker 31 in an interview from 2009 shawn fanning explained that napster was something that came to me as a result of seeing a sort of an unmet need and the passion people had for being able to find all this music particularly a lot of the obscure stuff which wouldn t be something you go to a record store and purchase so it felt like a problem worth solving 32 not only did this development disrupt the music industry by making songs that previously required payment to acquire freely accessible to any napster user but it also demonstrated the power of p2p networks in turning any digital file into a public shareable good for the brief period of time that napster existed mp3 files fundamentally changed as a type of good songs were no longer financially excludable barring access to a computer with internet access and they were not rival meaning if one person downloaded a song it did not diminish another user from doing the same napster like most other providers of public goods faced the free rider problem every user benefits when an individual uploads an mp3 file but there is no requirement or mechanism that forces all users to share their music thus napster users were incentivized to let others upload music without sharing any of their own files this structure revolutionized the consumer s perception of ownership over digital goods it made music freely replicable napster quickly garnered millions of users growing faster than any other business in history at the peak of its existence napster boasted about 80 million users globally the site gained so much traffic that many college campuses had to block access to napster because it created network congestion from so many students sharing music files 33 the advent of napster sparked the creation of numerous other p2p sites including limewire 2000 bittorrent 2001 and the pirate bay 2003 the reign of p2p networks was short lived the first to fall was napster in 2001 numerous lawsuits were filed against napster by various record labels all of which were subsidiaries of universal music group sony music entertainment warner music group or emi in addition to this the recording industry association of america riaa also filed a lawsuit against napster on the grounds of unauthorized distribution of copyrighted material which ultimately led napster to shut down in 2001 33 in an interview with the new york times gary stiffelman who represents eminem aerosmith and tlc explained i m not an opponent of artists music being included in these services i m just an opponent of their revenue not being shared 34 the fight for intellectual property rights a m records inc v napster inc edit the lawsuit a m records inc v napster inc fundamentally changed the way consumers interact with music streaming it was argued on 2 october 2000 and was decided on 12 february 2001 the court of appeals for the ninth circuit ruled that a p2p file sharing service could be held liable for contributory and vicarious infringement of copyright serving as a landmark decision for intellectual property law 35 the first issue that the court addressed was fair use which says that otherwise infringing activities are permissible so long as it is for purposes such as criticism comment news reporting teaching scholarship or research 36 judge beezer the judge for this case noted that napster claimed that its services fit three specific alleged fair uses sampling where users make temporary copies of a work before purchasing space shifting where users access a sound recording through the napster system that they already own in audio cd format and permissive distribution of recordings by both new and established artists 36 judge beezer found that napster did not fit these criteria instead enabling their users to repeatedly copy music which would affect the market value of the copyrighted good the second claim by the plaintiffs was that napster was actively contributing to copyright infringement since it had knowledge of widespread file sharing on its platform since napster took no action to reduce infringement and financially benefited from repeated use the court ruled against the p2p site the court found that as much as eighty seven percent of the files available on napster may be copyrighted and more than seventy percent may be owned or administered by plaintiffs 36 the injunction ordered against napster ended the brief period in which music streaming was a public good non rival and non excludable in nature other p2p networks had some success at sharing mp3s though they all met a similar fate in court the ruling set the precedent that copyrighted digital content cannot be freely replicated and shared unless given consent by the owner thereby strengthening the property rights of artists and record labels alike 35 music streaming platforms edit as music streaming platforms have become more prevalent in the us music piracy rates have fallen piracy rates are calculated as a function of us total population 37 although music streaming is no longer a freely replicable public good streaming platforms such as spotify deezer apple music soundcloud and amazon music have shifted music streaming to a club type good while some platforms most notably spotify give customers access to a freemium service that enables the use of limited features for exposure to advertisements most companies operate under a premium subscription model 38 under such circumstances music streaming is financially excludable requiring that customers pay a monthly fee for access to a music library but non rival since one customer s use does not impair another s as of 2019 update spotify has over 207 million users in 78 countries 39 as of 2018 update apple music has about 60 million and soundcloud has 175 million 40 all platforms provide varying degrees of accessibility apple music and prime music only offer their services for paid subscribers whereas spotify and soundcloud offer freemium and premium services napster owned by rhapsody since 2011 has resurfaced as a music streaming platform offering subscription based services to over 4 5 million users as of january 2017 update 41 the music industry s response to music streaming was initially negative along with music piracy streaming services disrupted the market and contributed to the fall in us revenue from 14 6 billion in 1999 to 6 3 billion in 2009 cds and single track downloads were not selling because content was freely available on the internet by 2018 however music streaming revenue exceeded that of traditional revenue streams e g record sales album sales downloads 42 streaming revenue is now one of the largest driving forces behind the growth in the music industry in an interview jonathan dworkin a senior vice president of strategy and business development at universal said we cannot be afraid of perpetual change because that dynamism is driving growth 42 covid 19 pandemic edit by august 2020 the covid 19 pandemic had streaming services busier than ever in the uk alone twelve million people joined a new streaming service that they had not previously had 43 an impact analysis of 2020 data by the international confederation of societies of authors and composers cisac indicated that remuneration from digital streaming of music increased with a strong rise in digital royalty collection up 16 6 to eur 2 4 billion but it would not compensate the overall loss of income of authors from concerts public performance and broadcast 44 the international federation of the phonographic industry ifpi recompiled the music industry initiatives around the world related to the covid 19 in its state of the industry report it recorded that the global recorded music market grew by 7 4 in 2022 the 6th consecutive year of growth this growth was driven by streaming mostly from paid subscription streaming revenues which increased by 18 5 fueled by 443 million users of subscription accounts by the end of 2020 45 the covid 19 pandemic has also driven an increase in misinformation and disinformation particularly on streaming platforms like youtube and podcasts 46 technologies edit bandwidth edit a broadband speed of 2 mbit s or more is recommended for streaming standard definition video 47 for example to a roku apple tv google tv or a sony tv blu ray disc player 5 mbit s is recommended for high definition content and 9 mbit s for ultra high definition content 48 streaming media storage size is calculated from the streaming bandwidth and length of the media using the following formula for a single user and file storage size in megabytes is equal to length in seconds bit rate in bit s 8 1024 1024 for example one hour of digital video encoded at 300 kbit s this was a typical broadband video in 2005 and it was usually encoded in 320 240 resolution will be 3 600 s 300 000 bit s 8 1024 1024 requires around 128 mb of storage if the file is stored on a server for on demand streaming and this stream is viewed by 1 000 people at the same time using a unicast protocol the requirement is 300 kbit s 1 000 300 000 kbit s 300 mbit s of bandwidth this is equivalent to around 135 gb per hour using a multicast protocol the server sends out only a single stream that is common to all users therefore such a stream would only use 300 kbit s of serving bandwidth see below for more information on these protocols the calculation for live streaming is similar assuming that the speed at the encoder is 500 kbit s and if the show lasts for 3 hours with 3 000 viewers then the calculation is number of mbs transferred encoder speed in bit s number of seconds number of viewers 8 1024 1024 the results of this calculation are as follows number of mbs transferred 500 x 1024 bit s 3 3 600 3 hours 3 000 number of viewers 8 1024 1024 1 977 539 mb dubious discuss in 2018 video was more than 60 of data tra...