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00 in fines the net act also raised statutory damages by 50 the court s ruling explicitly drew attention to the shortcomings of current law that allowed people to facilitate mass copyright infringement while being immune to prosecution under the copyright act proposed laws such as the stop online piracy act broaden the definition of willful infringement and introduce felony charges for unauthorized media streaming these bills are aimed towards defeating websites that carry or contain links to infringing content but have raised concerns about domestic abuse and internet censorship non commercial file sharing edit legality of downloading edit to an extent copyright law in some countries permits downloading copyright protected content for personal noncommercial use examples include canada 43 and european union eu member states like poland 44 the personal copying exemption in the copyright law of eu member states stems from the information society directive of 2001 which is generally devised to allow eu members to enact laws sanctioning making copies without authorization as long as they are for personal noncommercial use the directive was not intended to legitimize file sharing but rather the common practice of space shifting copyright protected content from a legally purchased cd for example to certain kinds of devices and media provided rights holders are compensated and no copy protection measures are circumvented rights holder compensation takes various forms depending on the country but is generally either a levy on recording devices and media or a tax on the content itself in some countries such as canada the applicability of such laws to copying onto general purpose storage devices like computer hard drives portable media players and phones for which no levies are collected has been the subject of debate and further efforts to reform copyright law in some countries the personal copying exemption explicitly requires that the content being copied be obtained legitimately i e from authorized sources not file sharing networks in april 2014 the court of justice of the european union ruled that national legislation which makes no distinction between private copies made from lawful sources and those made from counterfeited or pirated sources cannot be tolerated 45 legality of uploading edit although downloading or other private copying is sometimes permitted public distribution by uploading or otherwise offering to share copyright protected content remains illegal in most if not all countries for example in canada even though it was once legal to download any copyrighted file as long as it was for noncommercial use it was still illegal to distribute the copyrighted files e g by uploading them to a p2p network 46 relaxed penalties edit some countries like canada and germany have limited the penalties for non commercial copyright infringement for example germany has passed a bill to limit the fine for individuals accused of sharing movies and series to 800 900 canada s copyright modernization act claims that statutory damages for non commercial copyright infringement are capped at c 5 000 but this only applies to copies that have been made without the breaking of any digital lock however this only applies to bootleg distribution and not non commercial use 47 dmca and anti circumvention laws edit title i of the u s dmca the wipo copyright and performances and phonograms treaties implementation act has provisions that prevent persons from circumvent ing a technological measure that effectively controls access to a work thus if a distributor of copyrighted works has some kind of software dongle or password access device installed in instances of the work any attempt to bypass such a copy protection scheme may be actionable though the us copyright office is currently timeframe reviewing anticircumvention rulemaking under dmca anti circumvention exemptions that have been in place under the dmca include those in software designed to filter websites that are generally seen to be inefficient child safety and public library website filtering software and the circumvention of copy protection mechanisms that have malfunctioned have caused the instance of the work to become inoperable or which are no longer supported by their manufacturers 48 according to abby house media inc v apple inc it is legal to point users to drm stripping software and inform them how to use it because of lack of evidence that drm stripping leads to copyright infringement 49 50 51 online intermediary liability edit whether internet intermediaries are liable for copyright infringement by their users is a subject of debate and court cases in a number of countries 52 definition of intermediary edit internet intermediaries were formerly understood to be internet service providers isps however questions of liability have also emerged in relation to other internet infrastructure intermediaries including internet backbone providers cable companies and mobile communications providers 53 in addition intermediaries are now also generally understood to include internet portals software and games providers those providing virtual information such as interactive forums and comment facilities with or without a moderation system aggregators of various kinds such as news aggregators universities libraries and archives web search engines chat rooms web blogs mailing lists and any website which provides access to third party content through for example hyperlinks a crucial element of the world wide web litigation and legislation concerning intermediaries edit early court cases focused on the liability of internet service providers isps for hosting transmitting or publishing user supplied content that could be actioned under civil or criminal law such as libel or pornography 54 as different content was considered in different legal systems and in the absence of common definitions for isps bulletin boards or online publishers early law on online intermediaries liability varied widely from country to country citation needed the debate has shifted away from questions about liability for specific content including that which may infringe copyright towards whether online intermediaries should be generally responsible for content accessible through their services or infrastructure 55 the u s digital millennium copyright act 1998 and the european e commerce directive 2000 provide online intermediaries with limited statutory immunity from liability for copyright infringement online intermediaries hosting content that infringes copyright are not liable so long as they do not know about it and take actions once the infringing content is brought to their attention in u s law this is characterized as safe harbor provisions under european law the governing principles for internet service providers are mere conduit meaning that they are neutral pipes with no knowledge of what they are carrying and no obligation to monitor meaning that they cannot be given a general mandate by governments to monitor content these two principles are a barrier for certain forms of online copyright enforcement and they were the reason behind an attempt to amend the european telecoms package in 2009 to support new measures against copyright infringement 56 peer to peer issues edit peer to peer file sharing intermediaries have been denied access to safe harbor provisions in relation to copyright infringement legal action against such intermediaries such as napster are generally brought in relation to principles of secondary liability for copyright infringement such as contributory liability and vicarious liability 57 the bittorrent protocol in this animation the colored bars beneath all of the seven clients in the upper region above represent the file with each color representing an individual piece of the file after the initial pieces transfer from the seed large system at the bottom the pieces are individually transferred from client to client the original seeder only needs to send out one copy of the file for all the clients to receive a copy these types of intermediaries do not host or transmit infringing content themselves but may be regarded in some courts as encouraging enabling or facilitating infringement by users these intermediaries may include the author publishers and marketers of peer to peer networking software and the websites that allow users to download such software in the case of the bittorrent protocol intermediaries may include the torrent tracker and any websites or search engines which facilitate access to torrent files torrent files do not contain copyrighted content but they may refer to files that do and they may point to trackers which coordinate the sharing of those files some torrent indexing and search sites such as the pirate bay now encourage the use of magnet links instead of direct links to torrent files creating another layer of indirection using such links torrent files are obtained from other peers rather than from a particular website since the late 1990s copyright holders have taken legal actions against a number of peer to peer intermediaries such as pir grokster emule soulseek bittorrent and limewire and case law on the liability of internet service providers isps in relation to copyright infringement has emerged primarily in relation to these cases 58 nevertheless whether and to what degree any of these types of intermediaries have secondary liability is the subject of ongoing litigation the decentralised structure of peer to peer networks in particular does not sit easily with existing laws on online intermediaries liability the bittorrent protocol established an entirely decentralised network architecture in order to distribute large files effectively recent developments in peer to peer technology towards more complex network configurations are said to have been driven by a desire to avoid liability as intermediaries under existing laws 59 limitations edit copyright law does not grant authors and publishers absolute control over the use of their work only certain types of works and kinds of uses are protected 60 only unauthorized uses of protected works can be said to be infringing non infringing uses edit article 10 of the berne convention mandates that national laws provide for limitations to copyright so that copyright protection does not extend to certain kinds of uses that fall under what the treaty calls fair practice including but not limited to minimal quotations used in journalism and education 61 the laws implementing these limitations and exceptions for uses that would otherwise be infringing broadly fall into the categories of either fair use or fair dealing in common law systems these fair practice statutes typically enshrine principles underlying many earlier judicial precedents and are considered essential to freedom of speech 62 another example is the practice of compulsory licensing which is where the law forbids copyright owners from denying a license for certain uses of certain kinds of works such as compilations and live performances of music compulsory licensing laws generally say that for certain uses of certain works no infringement occurs as long as a royalty at a rate determined by law rather than private negotiation is paid to the copyright owner or representative copyright collective some fair dealing laws such as canada s include similar royalty requirements 63 in europe the copyright infringement case public relations consultants association ltd v newspaper licensing agency ltd had two prongs one concerned whether a news aggregator service infringed the copyright of the news generators the other concerned whether the temporary web cache created by the web browser of a consumer of the aggregator s service also infringed the copyright of the news generators 64 the first prong was decided in favor of the news generators in june 2014 the second prong was decided by the court of justice of the european union cjeu which ruled that the temporary web cache of consumers of the aggregator did not infringe the copyright of the news generators 64 65 66 non infringing types of works edit in order to qualify for protection a work must be an expression with a degree of originality and it must be in a fixed medium such as written down on paper or recorded digitally 67 68 the idea itself is not protected that is a copy of someone else s original idea is not infringing unless it copies that person s unique tangible expression of the idea some of these limitations especially regarding what qualifies as original are embodied only in case law judicial precedent rather than in statutes in the u s for example copyright case law contains a substantial similarity requirement to determine whether the work was copied likewise courts may require computer software to pass an abstraction filtration comparison test afc test 69 70 to determine if it is too abstract to qualify for protection or too dissimilar to an original work to be considered infringing software related case law has also clarified that the amount of r d effort and expense put into a work s creation does not affect copyright protection 71 evaluation of alleged copyright infringement in a court of law may be substantial the time and costs required to apply these tests vary based on the size and complexity of the copyrighted material furthermore there is no standard or universally accepted test some courts have rejected the afc test for example in favor of narrower criteria preventive measures edit the bsa outlined four strategies that governments can adopt to reduce software piracy rates in its 2011 piracy study results increase public education and raise awareness about software piracy and ip rights in cooperation with industry and law enforcement modernize protections for software and other copyrighted materials to keep pace with new innovations such as cloud computing and the proliferation of networked mobile devices strengthen enforcement of ip laws with dedicated resources including specialized enforcement units training for law enforcement and judiciary officials improved cross border cooperation among law enforcement agencies and fulfillment of obligations under the world trade organization s agreement on trade related aspects of intellectual property rights trips lead by example by using only fully licensed software implementing software asset management sam programs and promoting the use of legal software in state owned enterprises and among all contractors and suppliers 72 legal edit corporations and legislatures take different types of preventive measures to deter copyright infringement with much of the focus since the early 1990s being on preventing or reducing digital methods of infringement strategies include education civil and criminal legislation and international agreements 73 as well as publicizing anti piracy litigation successes and imposing forms of digital media copy protection...
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