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workplace 62 commonly tested substances edit recreational substances edit anabolic steroids edit anabolic steroids are used to enhance performance in sports and as they are prohibited in most high level competitions drug testing is used extensively in order to enforce this prohibition this is particularly so in individual rather than team sports such as athletics and cycling methodologies edit before testing samples the tamper evident seal is checked for integrity if it appears to have been tampered with or damaged the laboratory rejects the sample and does not test it next the sample must be made testable urine and oral fluid can be used as is for some tests but other tests require the drugs to be extracted from urine strands of hair patches and blood must be prepared before testing hair is washed in order to eliminate second hand sources of drugs on the surface of the hair then the keratin is broken down using enzymes blood plasma may need to be separated by centrifuge from blood cells prior to testing sweat patches are opened and the sweat collection component is removed and soaked in a solvent to dissolve any drugs present laboratory based drug testing is done in two steps the first step is the screening test which is an immunoassay based test applied to all samples the second step known as the confirmation test is usually undertaken by a laboratory using highly specific chromatographic techniques and only applied to samples that test positive during the screening test 63 screening tests are usually done by immunoassay emit elisa and ria are the most common a dipstick drug testing method which could provide screening test capabilities to field investigators has been developed at the university of illinois 64 after a suspected positive sample is detected during screening the sample is tested using a confirmation test samples that are negative on the screening test are discarded and reported as negative the confirmation test in most laboratories and all samhsa certified labs is performed using mass spectrometry and is precise but expensive false positive samples from the screening test will almost always be negative on the confirmation test samples testing positive during both screening and confirmation tests are reported as positive to the entity that ordered the test most laboratories save positive samples for some period of months or years in the event of a disputed result or lawsuit for workplace drug testing a positive result is generally not confirmed without a review by a medical review officer who will normally interview the subject of the drug test urine drug testing edit urine drug test kits are available as on site tests or laboratory analysis urinalysis is the most common test type and used by federally mandated drug testing programs and is considered the gold standard of drug testing urine based tests have been upheld in most courts for more than 30 years however urinalysis conducted by the department of defense has been challenged for reliability of testing the metabolite of cocaine there are two associated metabolites of cocaine benzoylecgonine bz and ecgonine methyl ester eme the first bz is created by the presence of cocaine in an aqueous solution with a ph greater than 7 0 while the second eme results from the actual human metabolic process the presence of eme confirms actual ingestion of cocaine by a human being while the presence of bz is indicative only bz without eme is evidence of sample contamination however the us department of defense has chosen not to test for eme in its urinalysis program 65 relevant a number of different analyses defined as the unknown substance being tested for are available on urine drug screens spray drug testing edit spray sweat drug test kits are non invasive it is a simple process to collect the required specimen no bathroom is needed no laboratory is required for analysis and the tests themselves are difficult to manipulate and relatively tamper resistant the detection window is long and can detect recent drug use within several hours there are also some disadvantages to spray or sweat testing there is not much variety in these drug tests only a limited number of drugs can be detected prices tend to be higher and inconclusive results can be produced by variations in sweat production rates in donors they also have a relatively long specimen collection period and are more vulnerable to contamination than other common forms of testing 46 hair drug testing edit hair drug testing is a method that can detect drug use over a much longer period of time than saliva sweat or urine tests hair testing is also more robust with respect to tampering thus hair sampling is preferred by the us military 66 and by many large corporations which are subject to drug free workplace act of 1988 head hair normally growth at the rate of 0 5 inches per month 67 thus the most common hair sample length of 1 5 from the scalp would detect drug use within the last 90 100 days 80 120 strands of hair are sufficient for the test 68 in the absence of hair on the head body hair can be used as an acceptable substitute this includes facial hair the underarms arms and legs or even pubic hair because body hair usually grows slower than head hair drugs can often be detected in body hair for longer periods e g up to 12 months most drugs are analysed in hair samples not as the original psychoactive molecules but rather as their metabolytes for example ethanol is determined as ethyl glucuronide while cocaine use is confirmed using ecgonine testing for metabolytes reduces the likelihood of false positive results due to contamination one disadvantage of hair testing is that it cannot detect recent drug use because it takes at least a week after a drug intake for the metabolytes to show up in a growing hair above the skin 66 urine tests are better suited for detecting recent within a week drug use in a practical test hair sample is usually washed with a low polarity solvent such as dichloromethane to remove surface contaminations then the sample is pulverized and extracted with a more polar solvent such as methanol 69 although thousand different substances can be determined in a single gas chromatography mass spectrometry or liquid chromatography mass spectrometry experiment due to the low concentration of analytes practical measurements see selective ion monitoring are limited to a smaller number 10 20 of analytes designer drugs are usually missed in such measurements because the analyst must know in advance what chemicals to look for most hair testing laboratories use the aforementioned chromato mass spectrometry methods for confirmation or for rarely tested drugs only mass screening preliminary or final is usually done with immunoassays because of their lower cost legality ethics and politics edit the results of federally mandating drug testing were similar to the effects of simply extending to the trucking industry the right to perform drug tests and it has been argued that the latter approach would have been as effective at lower cost 70 psychologist tony buon has criticized the use of workplace drug testing on a number of grounds including flawed technology the real world performance of testing is much lower than that claimed by its promoters buon suggest that tests are probably adequate for rehabilitation and treatment situations possibly adequate for pre employment situations but not for dismissing employees ethical issues because of the fairly simple ways that an employee can invalidate the test drug testing must be strictly monitored this means that the specimen must be observed leaving the body many legal objections currently being raised in the courts about drug testing are pointing to legal requirements of prior notice consent due process and cause 71 72 wrong focus as has been shown with employee assistance programs the focus of management concern should be on work performance decline buon suggests effective management practices are an infinitely better approach to managing workplace alcohol and other drug issues 73 tony buon has also reported by the cipd as stating that drug testing captures the stupid experienced drug users know how to beat the tests 74 from a penological standpoint one purpose of drug testing is to help classify the people taking the drug test within risk groups so that those who pose more of a danger to the public can be incapacitated through incarceration or other restrictions on liberty thus the drug testing serves a crime control purpose even if there is no expectation of rehabilitating the drug user through treatment deterring drug use through sanctions or sending a message that drug use is a deviant behavior that will not be tolerated 75 united kingdom edit a study in 2004 by the independent inquiry into drug testing at work found that attempts by employers to force employees to take drug tests could potentially be challenged as a violation of privacy under the human rights act 1998 and article 8 of the european convention of human rights 76 however this does not apply to industries where drug testing is a matter of personal and public safety or security rather than productivity united states edit in consultation with dr carlton turner president ronald reagan issued executive order 12564 in doing so he instituted mandatory drug testing for all safety sensitive executive level and civil service federal employees this was challenged in the courts by the national treasury employees union in 1988 this challenge was considered by the us supreme court 77 a similar challenge resulted in the court extending the drug free workplace concept to the private sector 78 these decisions were then incorporated into the white house drug control strategy directive issued by president george h w bush in 1989 79 all defendants serving on federal probation or federal supervised release are required to submit to at least three drug tests failing a drug test can be construed as possession of a controlled substance resulting in mandatory revocation and imprisonment 80 there have been inconsistent evaluation results as to whether continued pretrial drug testing has beneficial effects 81 testing positive can lead to bail not being granted or if bail has already been granted to bail revocation or other sanctions arizona also adopted a law in 1987 authorizing mandatory drug testing of felony arrestees for the purpose of informing the pretrial release decision and the district of columbia has had a similar law since the 1970s it has been argued that one of the problems with such testing is that there is often not enough time between the arrest and the bail decision to confirm positive results using gc ms technology it has also been argued that such testing potentially implicates the fifth amendment privilege against self incrimination the right to due process including the prohibition against gathering evidence in a manner that shocks the conscience or constitutes outrageous government conduct and the prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures contained in the fourth amendment 82 according to henriksson the anti drug appeals of the reagan administration created an environment in which many employers felt compelled to implement drug testing programs because failure to do so might be perceived as condoning drug use this fear was easily exploited by aggressive marketing and sales forces who often overstated the value of testing and painted a bleak picture of the consequences of failing to use the drug testing product or service being offered 83 on march 10 1986 the commission on organized crime asked all u s companies to test employees for drug use by 1987 nearly 25 of the fortune 500 companies used drug tests 84 according to an uncontrolled self report study done by datia and society for human resource management in 2012 sample of 6 000 randomly selected human resource professionals human resource professionals reported the following results after implementing a drug testing program 19 of companies reported a subjective increase in employee productivity 16 reported a decrease in employee turnover 8 reported an increase and unspecified percentages reported decreases in absenteeism and improvement of workers compensation incidence rates 85 according to us chamber of commerce 70 of all illicit drug users are employed 86 some industries have high rates of employee drug use such as construction 12 8 repair 11 1 and hospitality 7 9 16 3 87 australia edit a person conducting a business or undertaking pcbu the new term that includes employers has duties under the work health and safety whs legislation to ensure a worker affected by alcohol or other drugs does not place themselves or other persons at risk of injury while at work workplace policies and prevention programs can help change the norms and culture around substance use 88 all organisations large and small can benefit from an agreed policy on alcohol and drug misuse that applies to all workers such a policy should form part of an organisations overall health and safety management system pcbus are encouraged to establish a policy and procedure in consultation with workers to constructively manage alcohol and other drug related hazards in their workplace a comprehensive workplace alcohol and other drug policy should apply to everyone in the workplace and include prevention education counselling and rehabilitation arrangements in addition the roles and responsibilities of managers and supervisors should be clearly outlined 89 all australian workplace drug testing must comply with australian standard as nzs4308 2008 90 in victoria roadside saliva tests detect drugs that contain 91 thc delta 9 tetrahydrocannabinol the active component in cannabis methamphetamine also known as ice crystal and crank mdma methylenedioxymethamphetamine which is known as ecstasy in february 2016 a new south wales magistrate acquitted a man who tested positive for cannabis he had been arrested and charged after testing positive during a roadside drug test despite not having smoked for nine days he was relying on advice previously given to him by police 92 refusal edit in the united states federal criminal system refusing to take a drug test triggers an automatic revocation of probation or supervised release 93 94 in victoria australia the driver of the car has the option to refuse the drug test refusing to undergo a drug test or refusing to undergo a secondary drug test after the first one triggers an automatic suspension and disqualification for a period of two years and a fine of aud 1000 the second refusal triggers an automatic suspension and disqualification for a period of four years and an even larger fine historical cases edit in 2000 an australian mining company south blackwater coal ltd with 400 employees imposed drug testing procedures the trade unions advised their members to refuse to take the tests partly because a positive result does not necessari...
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