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sonorants liquids l r and nasals m n ŋ devoice when following a voiceless obstruent and they are syllabic when following a consonant at the end of a word 209 voiceless sonorants clay kl̥eɪ̯ snow rp sn̥əʊ̯ ga sn̥oʊ̯ syllabic sonorants paddle ˈpad l̩ button ˈbʌt n̩ vowels tense vowels rp ga word i i n ee d u u f oo d eɪ b ay əʊ oʊ r oa d aɪ cr y aʊ c ow ɔɪ b oy ɪə ɪɹ p eer eə ɛɹ p air ʊə ʊɹ p oor lax vowels and other monophthongs rp ga word ɪ b i d e ɛ b e d æ b a ck ɑː ɑ br a ɒ b o x ɔ ɑ cl o th ɔː p aw ʊ g oo d ʌ ə b u t ə comm a ɜː ɜɹ b ir d the pronunciation of vowels varies a great deal between dialects and is one of the most detectable aspects of a speaker s accent the accompanying table below lists the vowel phonemes in rp and ga with example words from lexical sets the vowels are represented with symbols from the international phonetic alphabet those given for rp are standard in british dictionaries and other publications 210 in rp vowel length is phonemic long vowels are marked with a triangular colon ː in the table above such as the vowel of need niːd as opposed to bid bɪd 211 in ga vowel length is non distinctive 212 in both rp and ga vowels are phonetically shortened before fortis consonants in the same syllable like t tʃ f but not before lenis consonants like d dʒ v or in open syllables thus the vowels of rich rɪtʃ neat nit and safe seɪ̯f are noticeably shorter than the vowels of ridge rɪˑdʒ need niˑd and save seˑɪ̯v and the vowel of light laɪ̯t is shorter than that of lie laˑɪ̯ because lenis consonants are frequently voiceless at the end of a syllable vowel length is an important cue as to whether the following consonant is lenis or fortis 213 the vowel ə only occurs in unstressed syllables and is more open in quality in stem final positions 214 215 some dialects do not contrast ɪ and ə in unstressed positions such that rabbit and abbot rhyme and lenin and lennon are homophonous a dialectal feature called the weak vowel merger 216 ga ɜr and ər are realised as an r coloured vowel ɚ as in further ˈfɚðɚ phonemically ˈfɜrðər which in rp is realised as ˈfəːðə phonemically ˈfɜːðə 217 phonotactics an english syllable includes a syllable nucleus consisting of a vowel sound syllable onset and coda start and end are optional a syllable can start with up to three consonant sounds as in sprint sprɪnt and end with up to five as in for some dialects angsts aŋksts this gives an english syllable a structure of ccc v ccccc where c represents a consonant and v a vowel the word strengths strɛŋθs is thus close to the most complex syllable possible in english the consonants that may appear together in onsets or codas are restricted as is the order in which they may appear onsets can only have four types of consonant clusters a stop and approximant as in play a voiceless fricative and approximant as in fly or sly s and a voiceless stop as in stay and s a voiceless stop and an approximant as in string 218 clusters of nasal and stop are only allowed in codas clusters of obstruents always agree in voicing and clusters of sibilants and of plosives with the same point of articulation are prohibited several consonants have limited distributions h can only occur in syllable initial position and ŋ only in syllable final position 219 stress rhythm and intonation see also stress and vowel reduction in english intonation linguistics english and english prosody stress plays an important role in english certain syllables are stressed while others are unstressed stress is a combination of duration intensity vowel quality and sometimes changes in pitch stressed syllables are pronounced longer and louder than unstressed syllables and vowels in unstressed syllables are frequently reduced while vowels in stressed syllables are not 220 stress in english is phonemic gaining freedom and dynamicity once lost in proto germanic through a majority of borrowings from non germanic languages for instance the word contract is stressed on the first syllable ˈ k ɒ n t r æ k t kon trakt when used as a noun but on the last syllable k ə n ˈ t r æ k t kən trakt for most meanings for example reduce in size when used as a verb 221 222 223 here stress is connected to vowel reduction in the noun contract the first syllable is stressed and has the unreduced vowel ɒ but in the verb contract the first syllable is unstressed and its vowel is reduced to ə stress is also used to distinguish between words and phrases so that a compound word receives a single stress unit but the corresponding phrase has two e g a burnout ˈ b ɜːr n aʊ t versus to burn out ˈ b ɜːr n ˈ aʊ t and a hotdog ˈ h ɒ t d ɒ ɡ versus a hot dog ˈ h ɒ t ˈ d ɒ ɡ 224 in terms of rhythm english is generally described as a stress timed language meaning that the amount of time between stressed syllables tends to be equal 225 stressed syllables are pronounced longer but unstressed syllables syllables between stresses are shortened vowels in unstressed syllables are shortened as well and vowel shortening causes changes in vowel quality vowel reduction 226 regional variation phonological features in standard english varieties 227 united states canada ireland northern ireland scotland england wales south africa australia new zealand father bother merger yes yes ɒ is unrounded yes yes yes ɜr is pronounced ɚ yes yes yes yes cot caught merger possibly yes possibly yes yes fool full merger yes yes t d flapping yes yes possibly often rarely rarely rarely rarely yes often trap bath split possibly possibly often yes yes often yes non rhoticity yes yes yes yes yes close vowels for æ ɛ yes yes yes l can always be pronounced ɫ yes yes yes yes yes yes ɑː is fronted before r possibly possibly yes yes dialects and low vowels lexical set rp ga cane sound change thought ɔː ɔ or ɑ ɑ cot caught merger cloth ɒ lot cloth split lot ɑ father bother merger palm ɑː bath æ æ trap bath split trap æ varieties of english vary the most in pronunciation of vowels the best known national varieties used as standards for education in non english speaking countries are british bre and american ame countries such as canada australia ireland new zealand and south africa have their own standard varieties which are less often used as standards for education internationally 227 english has undergone many historical sound changes some of them affecting all varieties and others affecting only a few most standard varieties are affected by the great vowel shift which changed the pronunciation of long vowels but a few dialects have slightly different results in north america a number of chain shifts such as the northern cities vowel shift and canadian shift have produced very different vowel landscapes in some regional accents 228 some dialects have fewer or more consonant phonemes and phones than the standard varieties some conservative varieties like scottish english have a voiceless ʍ sound in whine that contrasts with the voiced w in wine but most other dialects pronounce both words with voiced w a dialect feature called wine whine merger the voiceless velar fricative sound x is found in scottish english which distinguishes loch lɔx from lock lɔk accents like cockney with h dropping lack the glottal fricative h and dialects with th stopping and th fronting like african american vernacular and estuary english do not have the dental fricatives θ ð but replace them with dental or alveolar stops t d or labiodental fricatives f v 229 230 other changes affecting the phonology of local varieties are processes such as yod dropping yod coalescence and reduction of consonant clusters 231 page needed ga and rp vary in their pronunciation of historical r after a vowel at the end of a syllable in the syllable coda ga is a rhotic dialect meaning that it pronounces r at the end of a syllable but rp is non rhotic meaning that it loses r in that position english dialects are classified as rhotic or non rhotic depending on whether they elide r like rp or keep it like ga 232 there is complex dialectal variation in words with the open front and open back vowels æ ɑː ɒ ɔː these four vowels are only distinguished in rp australia new zealand and south africa in ga these vowels merge to three æ ɑ ɔ 233 and in canadian english they merge to two æ ɑ 234 orthography since the 9th century english has been written using the english alphabet which uses the latin script anglo saxon runes were previously used to write old english but only in short inscriptions the overwhelming majority of attested writings in old english are in the old english latin alphabet 33 english orthography is multi layered and complex with elements of french latin and greek spelling on top of the native germanic system 235 further complications have arisen through sound changes with which the orthography has not kept pace 50 compared to european languages for which official organisations have promoted spelling reforms english has spelling that is a less consistent indicator of pronunciation and standard spellings of words that are more difficult to guess from knowing how a word is pronounced 236 there are also systematic spelling differences between british and american english these situations have prompted proposals for spelling reform in english 237 although letters and speech sounds do not have a one to one correspondence in standard english spelling spelling rules that take into account syllable structure phonetic changes in derived words and word accent are reliable for most english words 238 moreover standard english spelling shows etymological relationships between related words that would be obscured by a closer correspondence between pronunciation and spelling for example the words photograph photography and photographic 238 or the words electricity and electrical while few scholars agree with chomsky and halle 1968 that conventional english orthography is near optimal 235 there is a rationale for current english spelling patterns 239 the standard orthography of english is the most widely used writing system in the world 240 standard english spelling is based on a graphomorphemic segmentation of words into written clues of what meaningful units make up each word 241 readers of english can generally rely on the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation to be fairly regular for letters or digraphs used to spell consonant sounds the letters b d f h j k l m n p r s t v w y z represent respectively the phonemes b d f h dʒ k l m n p r s t v w j z the letters c and g normally represent k and ɡ but there is also a soft c pronounced s and a soft g pronounced dʒ the differences in the pronunciations of the letters c and g are often signalled by the following letters in standard english spelling digraphs used to represent phonemes and phoneme sequences include ch for tʃ sh for ʃ th for θ or ð ng for ŋ qu for kw and ph for f in greek derived words the single letter x is generally pronounced as z in word initial position and as ks otherwise there are exceptions to these generalisations often the result of loanwords being spelled according to the spelling patterns of their languages of origin 238 or residues of proposals by scholars in the early period of modern english to follow the spelling patterns of latin for english words of germanic origin 242 for the vowel sounds of the english language however correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are more irregular there are many more vowel phonemes in english than there are single vowel letters a e i o u y and very rarely w as a result some long vowels are often indicated by combinations of letters like the oa in boat the ow in how and the ay in stay or the historically based silent e as in note and cake 239 the consequence of this complex orthographic history is that learning to read and write can be challenging in english it can take longer for school pupils to become independently fluent readers of english than of many other languages including italian spanish and german 243 nonetheless there is an advantage for learners of english reading in learning the specific sound symbol regularities that occur in the standard english spellings of commonly used words 238 such instruction greatly reduces the risk of children experiencing reading difficulties in english 244 245 making primary school teachers more aware of the primacy of morpheme representation in english may help learners learn more efficiently to read and write english 246 english writing also includes a system of punctuation marks that is similar to those used in most alphabetic languages around the world the purpose of punctuation is to mark meaningful grammatical relationships in sentences to aid readers in understanding a text and to indicate features important for reading a text aloud 247 grammar typical for an indo european language english grammar follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment unlike other indo european languages english has largely abandoned the inflectional case system in favour of analytic constructions only the personal pronouns retain morphological case more strongly than any other word class english distinguishes at least seven major word classes verbs nouns adjectives adverbs determiners including articles prepositions and conjunctions some analyses add pronouns as a class separate from nouns and subdivide conjunctions into subordinators and coordinators and add the class of interjections 248 english also has a rich set of auxiliary verbs such as have and do expressing the categories of mood and aspect questions are marked by do support wh movement fronting of question words beginning with wh and word order inversion with some verbs 249 some traits typical of germanic languages persist in english such as the distinction between irregularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut i e changing the vowel of the stem as in the pairs speak spoke and foot feet and weak stems inflected through affixation such as love loved hand hands 250 vestiges of the case and gender system are found in the pronoun system he him who whom similarly traces of more complex verb conjugation are seen in the inflection of the copula verb to be 250 the seven word classes are exemplified in this sample sentence 251 det noun prep det noun conj det adj noun verb advb conj det noun verb the chairman of the committee and the loquacious politician clashed violently when the meeting started nouns and noun phrases english nouns are only inflected for number and possession new nouns can be formed through derivation or compounding they are semantically divided into proper nouns names and common nouns common nouns are in turn divided into concrete and abstract nouns and grammatically into count nouns and mass nouns 252 most count nouns are inflected for plural number through the use of the plural suffix s but a few nouns have irregular plural forms mass nouns can only be pluralised through the use of a count noun classifier e g one loaf of bread two loaves of bread 253 regular plural fo...
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