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erno english in the third person the they them series of pronouns they them their theirs themselves are used in both plural and singular and are the only pronouns available for the plural in the singular the they them series sometimes with the addition of the singular specific reflexive form themself serve as a gender neutral set of pronouns these pronouns are becoming more accepted especially as part of lgbtq culture 262 272 273 english personal pronouns person subjective case objective case dependent possessive independent possessive reflexive 1st singular i me my mine myself 2nd singular you you your yours yourself 3rd singular he she it they him her it them his her its their his hers its theirs himself herself itself themself themselves 1st plural we us our ours ourselves 2nd plural you you your yours yourselves 3rd plural they them their theirs themselves pronouns are used to refer to entities deictically or anaphorically a deictic pronoun points to some person or object by identifying it relative to the speech situation for example the pronoun i identifies the speaker and the pronoun you the addressee anaphoric pronouns such as that refer back to an entity already mentioned or assumed by the speaker to be known by the audience for example in the sentence i already told you that the reflexive pronouns are used when the oblique argument is identical to the subject of a phrase e g he sent it to himself or she braced herself for impact 274 prepositions prepositional phrases pp are phrases composed of a preposition and one or more nouns e g with the dog for my friend to school in england 275 english prepositions have a wide range of uses including describing movement place and other relations between entities as well as functions that are syntactic in nature like introducing complement clauses and oblique arguments of verbs 275 for example in the phrase i gave it to him the preposition to marks the indirect object of the verb to give traditionally words were only considered prepositions if they governed the case of the noun they preceded for example causing the pronouns to use the objective rather than subjective form with her to me for us but some contemporary grammars no longer consider government of case to be the defining feature of the class of prepositions rather defining prepositions as words that can function as the heads of prepositional phrases 276 verbs and verb phrases english verbs are inflected for tense and aspect and marked for agreement with a third person present singular subject only the copula verb to be is still inflected for agreement with the plural and first and second person subjects 259 auxiliary verbs such as have and be are paired with verbs in the infinitive past or progressive forms they form complex tenses aspects and moods auxiliary verbs differ from other verbs in that they can be followed by the negation and in that they can occur as the first constituent in a question sentence 277 278 most verbs have six inflectional forms the primary forms are a plain present a third person singular present and a preterite past form the secondary forms are a plain form used for the infinitive a gerund participle and a past participle 279 the verb to be which among other uses in english functions as the primary auxiliary verb indicating the imperfective aspect e g i am going as well as the copula 280 is the only verb to retain some of its original conjugation and takes different inflectional forms depending on the subject the first person present form is am the third person singular form is is and the form are is used in the second person singular and all three plurals the only verb past participle is been and its gerund participle is being 281 english inflectional forms inflection strong regular plain present take love 3rd person sg present takes loves preterite took loved plain infinitive take love gerund participle taking loving past participle taken loved tense aspect and mood english has two primary tenses past preterite and non past the preterite is inflected by using the preterite form of the verb which for the regular verbs includes the suffix ed and for the strong verbs either the suffix t or a change in the stem vowel the non past form is unmarked except in the third person singular which takes the suffix s 277 present preterite first person i run i ran second person you run you ran third person john runs john ran english does not have future verb forms 282 the future tense is expressed periphrastically with one of the auxiliary verbs will or shall 283 many varieties also use a near future constructed with the phrasal verb be going to going to future 284 future first person i will run second person you will run third person john will run further aspectual distinctions are shown by auxiliary verbs primarily have and be which show the contrast between a perfect and non perfect past tense i have run vs i was running and compound tenses such as preterite perfect i had been running and present perfect i have been running 285 for the expression of mood english uses a number of modal auxiliaries such as can may will shall and the past tense forms could might would should there are also subjunctive and imperative moods both based on the plain form of the verb i e without the third person singular s for use in subordinate clauses e g subjunctive it is important that he run every day imperative run 283 an infinitive form that uses the plain form of the verb and the preposition to is used for verbal clauses that are syntactically subordinate to a finite verbal clause finite verbal clauses are those that are formed around a verb in the present or preterite form in clauses with auxiliary verbs they are the finite verbs and the main verb is treated as a subordinate clause 286 for example he has to go where only the auxiliary verb have is inflected for time and the main verb to go is in the infinitive or in a complement clause such as i saw him leave where the main verb is see which is in a preterite form and leave is in the infinitive phrasal verbs english also makes frequent use of constructions traditionally called phrasal verbs verb phrases that are made up of a verb root and a preposition or particle that follows the verb the phrase then functions as a single predicate in terms of intonation the preposition is fused to the verb but in writing it is written as a separate word examples of phrasal verbs are to get up to ask out to get together and to put up with the phrasal verb frequently has a highly idiomatic meaning that is more specialised and restricted than what can be simply extrapolated from the combination of verb and preposition complement e g lay off meaning terminate someone s employment 287 some grammarians do not consider this type of construction to form a syntactic constituent and hence refrain from using the term phrasal verb instead they consider the construction simply to be a verb with a prepositional phrase as its syntactic complement e g he woke up in the morning and he ran up in the mountains are syntactically equivalent 288 adverbs the function of adverbs is to modify the action or event described by the verb by providing additional information about the manner in which it occurs 249 many english adverbs are derived from adjectives by appending the suffix ly for example in the phrase the woman walked quickly the adverb quickly is derived from the adjective quick some commonly used adjectives have irregular adverbial forms such as good which has the adverbial form well 289 syntax in the english sentence the cat sat on the mat the subject is the cat a noun phrase the verb is sat and on the mat is a prepositional phrase composed of a noun phrase the mat headed by the preposition on modern english syntax is moderately analytic 290 it has developed features such as modal verbs and word order as resources for conveying meaning auxiliary verbs mark constructions such as questions negative polarity the passive voice and progressive aspect 291 basic constituent order english has moved from the germanic verb second v2 word order to being almost exclusively subject verb object svo 292 the combination of svo order and use of auxiliary verbs often creates clusters of two or more verbs at the centre of the sentence such as he had been hoping to try opening it 293 in most sentences english only marks grammatical relations through word order 294 the subject constituent precedes the verb and the object constituent follows it the grammatical roles of each constituent are marked only by the position relative to the verb s v o the dog bites the man the man bites the dog an exception is found in sentences where one of the constituents is a pronoun in which case it is doubly marked both by word order and by case inflection where the subject pronoun precedes the verb and takes the subjective case form and the object pronoun follows the verb and takes the objective case form 295 the example below demonstrates this double marking in a sentence where both object and subject are represented with a third person singular masculine pronoun s v o he hit him indirect objects io of ditransitive verbs can be placed either as the first object in a double object construction s v io o such as i gave jane the book or in a prepositional phrase such as i gave the book to jane 296 clause syntax main article english clause syntax english sentences may be composed of one or more clauses that may in turn be composed of one or more phrases e g noun phrases verb phrases prepositional phrases a clause is built around a verb and includes its constituents such as any noun or prepositional phrases within a sentence there is always at least one main clause or matrix clause whereas other clauses are subordinate to a main clause subordinate clauses may function as arguments of the verb in the main clause for example in the phrase i think that you are lying the main clause is headed by the verb think the subject is i but the object of the phrase is the subordinate clause that you are lying the subordinating conjunction that shows that the clause that follows is a subordinate clause but it is often omitted 297 relative clauses are clauses that function as a modifier or specifier to some constituent in the main clause for example in the sentence i saw the letter that you received today the relative clause that you received today specifies the meaning of the word letter the object of the main clause relative clauses can be introduced by the pronouns who whose whom and which as well as by that which can also be omitted 298 in contrast to many other germanic languages there are no major differences between word order in main and subordinate clauses 299 auxiliary verb constructions english auxiliary verbs are relied upon for many functions including the expression of tense aspect and mood auxiliary verbs form main clauses and the main verbs function as heads of a subordinate clause of the auxiliary verb for example in the sentence the dog did not find its bone the clause find its bone is the complement of the negated verb did not subject auxiliary inversion is used in many constructions including focus negation and interrogative constructions 300 the verb do can be used as an auxiliary even in simple declarative sentences where it usually serves to add emphasis as in i did shut the fridge however in the negated and inverted clauses referred to above it is used because the rules of english syntax permit these constructions only when an auxiliary is present modern english does not allow the addition of the negating adverb not to an ordinary finite lexical verb as in i know not it can only be added to an auxiliary or copular verb hence if there is no other auxiliary present when negation is required the auxiliary do is used to produce a form like i do not don t know the same applies in clauses requiring inversion including most questions inversion must involve the subject and an auxiliary verb so it is not possible to say know you him grammatical rules require do you know him 301 negation is done with the adverb not which precedes the main verb and follows an auxiliary verb a contracted form of not n t can be used as an enclitic attaching to auxiliary verbs and to the copula verb to be just as with questions many negative constructions require the negation to occur with do support thus in modern english i don t know him is the correct answer to the question do you know him but not i know him not although this construction may be found in older english 302 passive constructions also use auxiliary verbs a passive construction rephrases an active construction in such a way that the object of the active phrase becomes the subject of the passive phrase and the subject of the active phrase is either omitted or demoted to a role as an oblique argument introduced in a prepositional phrase they are formed by using the past participle either with the auxiliary verb to be or to get although not all varieties of english allow the use of passives with get for example putting the sentence she sees him into the passive becomes he is seen by her or he gets seen by her 303 questions both yes no questions and wh questions in english are mostly formed using subject auxiliary inversion am i going tomorrow where can we eat which may require do support do you like her where did he go in most cases interrogative words or wh words which include who what when where why and how appear in a fronted position for example in the question what did you see the word what appears as the first constituent despite being the grammatical object of the sentence when the wh word is the subject or forms part of the subject no inversion occurs e g who saw the cat prepositional phrases can also be fronted when they are the questions theme e g to whose house did you go last night the personal interrogative pronoun who is the only interrogative pronoun to still show inflection for case with the variant whom serving as the objective case form although this form may be going out of use in many contexts 304 discourse level syntax while english is a subject prominent language at the discourse level it tends to use a topic comment structure where the known information topic precedes the new information comment because of the strict svo syntax the topic of a sentence generally has to be the grammatical subject of the sentence in cases where the topic is not the grammatical subject of the sentence it is often promoted to subject position through syntactic means one way of doing this is through a passive construction the girl was stung by the bee another way is through a cleft sentence where the main clause is demoted to be a complement clause of a copula sentence with a dummy subject such as it or there e g it was the girl that the bee stung there was a girl who was stung by a bee 305 dummy subjects are also used in constructions where there is no grammatical subject such as with imp...
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